o 


# 


PRACTICAL  TREATISE 


HYDRAULIC  MINING 


CALIFORNIA. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  USE  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF 

Ditches.  Flumes,  Wrought-iron  Pipes,  and  Dams  ; 

FLOW  OF  WATER  ON  HEAVY  GRADES,  AND   ITS  APPLICABILITY,  UNDER 
HIGH  PRESSURE,  TO  MINING. 


AUG.  J.    BOWIE,  Jr., 

Mining  Engineer. 
FIFTH  EDITION.      ■ 


NEW    YORK: 
Dc    VAN    NOSTRAND    COMPANY, 

23  Murray  and  27  Warren  Street. 
1^93- 


Copyright,  1^5, 
D.  VAN  NOSTRAND. 


THIS   WORK    IS   DEDICATED 


RossiTBR  W.    Raymond,    Ph.O^ 


THE  .^JTHOR. 


2052929 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE   RECORDS   OF   GOLD-WASHING. 

PAGE 

Liberia,  Asia  Minor,  Italy,  Spain,  France,  Africa,  India,  Asiatic  Isl- 
ands, China,  Japan,  Russia  (Table  i.  Yield  of  gold  in  Russia), 
Brazil,  Chili,  Bolivia,  Peru,  Venezuela,  U.  S.  of  Colombia, 
Mexico  ;  Australasia  :  Victoria,  New  South  Wales,  Queensland, 
South  Australia,  New  Zealand  ;  Canada,  British  Columbia ;  U. 
S.  of  America  :  New  England,  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South 
Carolina,  Georgia,  Idaho,  Montana,  New  Mexico,  other  States 
and  Territories,    ......••••  15 

CHAPTER  II. 

HISTORY   AND   DEVELOPMENT   OF   PLACER-MINING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 

First  Mention  of  California.  Discovery  of  Lower  California.  Early 
Explorations  First  Mention  of  Gold.  First  Mission  in  Lower 
California.  Fir.st  Mission  in  Upper  California.  Early  Dis- 
coveries of  Placers.  Marshall  discovers  Gold  at  Coloma.  Other 
Gold  Discoveries.  First  Publication  of  Gold  Discoveries.  First 
Attempt  to  build  Ditches.  First  Use  of  the  "  Long  Tom." 
Discovery  of  Gold-Quartz  Veins.  First  Working  of  Deep  De- 
posits. Sluicing.  First  Use  of  the  Hydraulic  Method.  Canvas 
Hose.  Iron  Pipe.  Inverted  Siphons.  Improved  Nozzles. 
First  Rifle.  Deflector.  First  Drift-Mining.  Table  Mountain. 
Deep  Tunnels,     ..........  42 

CHAPTER    III. 

GENERAL  TOPOGRAPHY  AND  GEOLOGY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

The  three  Great  Belts  of  California. — Belt  of  the  Coast  Ranges: 
Topographical  Limits.  Mountain  System.  General  Topographi 
cal  Structure.  General  Geological  Structure.  Metamorphism. 
Cretaceous  Formations.  Coal  and  Cinnabar  Deposits.  Tertiary 
Strata.  Asphaltum  Deposits.  Tin  Ore.  Pliocene  Gravels. 
Gold,  Silver,  and  Copper  Veins.  Eruptive  Rocks. — Great 
Valley  of  California  :  General  Topography.  Drainage.  Rain- 
fall.— Belt  of  t  he  Sierra  Nevada  :  Topographical  Structure. 
General  Geolojicil  Structure  Granite.  Auriferous  Slate  For- 
mation. Gold-(>aartz  Veins.  Carboniferous  Limestones.  Ma- 
rine Sedimentary  Deposits.  Lava.  Sedimentary  Volcanic  Layers. 
Gravel  Deposits.     Deposits  at  La  Grange,  _  .         .         .  .  53 


8  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER    IV. 

THE    DISTRIBUTION   OF   GOLD   IN    DEPOSITS    AND    THE    VALUE    OF    DIFFERENT 

STRATA. 

PAGE 

Top  Gravel  sometimes  pays.  Gold  in  the  Grass-Roots.  Pay  Gravel 
sometimes  high  above  Bed-Rjck.  Pay  Gravel  generally  near 
Bed-Rock.  Tuolumne  River  Claims.  Nevada  County.  Sand 
generally  poorer  than  Gravel.  Rich  Pay  in  Undulations  and  De- 
pressions.— Examples  of  the  Comparative  Values  of  the  Different 
Gravel  Strata :  North  Bloomfield.  Patricksville  Light  Claim. 
La  Grange  Light  Claim.     Polar  Star  Mine,  ....  70 

CHAPTER   V. 

A.MOUNT    OF    WORKABLE    GRAVEL    REMAINING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

Minimum  Pay  Yield,  .........  76 

CHAPTER   VL 

THE    DllFERENT    METHODS    OF   MLNL-VG   GOLD-PLACERS. 

Miners'  Classification  of  Deposits.  Classification  of  Mining  Opera- 
tions.— Surface  -  M ini  ng  :  Dry- Washing.  Beach-Mining.  Bar 
and  River  Mining.  Ground-Sluicing.  Booming. — Deep-Min- 
ing :  Drifting.  Fig  i.  Sunny  South  Mine.  Hydraulic  Mining. 
Origin  in  California.  Hydraulic  vs.  Drift  Mining.  Require- 
ments for  Financial  Success,         .......  78 

CHAPTER   VIL 

PRELIMINARY    INVESTIGATIONS. 

Indications.     Explorations  at  Malakoff.     Fig.  2.  Section  of  Malakoff 

Shaft  No.  I, 87 

CHAPTER   Vin. 

RESERVOIRS  AND  DAMS. 
Storage  Reservoirs  :  Sources  of  Water-Supply.  Requirements  for 
Sites.  Elevation.  Streams  Rainfall.  Snowfall.  Absorption 
and  Evaporation.  Reservoir  Gauge.  Reservoir  Statistics. 
Distributing  Reservoirs.  Table  2.  Reservoirs  on  the  Yuba, 
Bear,  Feather,  and  American  Rivers. — Dams :  Foundation. 
Wooden  Dams.  Abutments.  Masonry  Dams.  Fig.  3.  Section 
of  Dam.  Earthen  Dams.  Puddle  Walls.  Shrinkage  of  Em- 
bankments Table  3.  Angles  of  Repose  and  Friction  of  Em- 
bankment Materials.  Fig.  4  Dry-Stone  Dam.  Dams  in  Cali- 
fornia. Table  4.  Principal  Dams  in  California. — Bowman  Re 
servoir  and  Dam  :  Main  Dam.  Fig.  5.  Bowman  Main  Dam 
Waste  Dam.  Fig  6.  Bowman  Waste  Dam.  Debris  Dams 
Table  5.  Rainfall  at  North  Bloomfield  and  at  the  Bowman  Dam 
Table  6.   Rain  and  Snow  Fall  at  Bowman  Reservoir,   ...  90 


CONTEXTS.  9 

CHAPTER  IX. 

MEASUKF.MK.N "T    OF    FLOWINV;    WAIER. 

PAGE 

Weirs.  Orifices.  Open  Channels.  Formula  for  Discharge  over 
Weirs.  Discharge  through  Triangular  Notches.  Fig.  7.  Con- 
struction of  Triangular  Weirs.  Table  7.  Discharge  of  Water 
through  a  Right-angled  Triangular  Notch.  Table  S.  Coefificients 
of  Discharge  through  Rectangular  Orifices  — Miner  s  Inch  : 
Smartsville  Inch.  Other  Inches.  Determination  of  the  Inch  ; 
Experiments  at  Columbia  Hill.  Fig.  8.  Experiments  on  the 
Inch  at  Columbia  Hill.  Flow  of  Water  in  Open  Channels. 
Kutter's  Coefficients  for  Roughness.  Ditches  in  California.  Ex- 
amples of  Value  of  Coefficient  in  Ditches,  .         .         .  119 

CHAPTER  X. 

DITCHES    AND    FLUMES. 

Ditches:  Location  and  Construction  Principle-.  Surveying  a  Ditch 
Line.  Narrow  and  Deep  vs.  Broad  and  Shallow  Ditches. 
Excavating  the  Ditch.  Examples  of  Ditche-.  North  Bloomfield. 
Fig.  9.  North  Bloomfield  Main  Ditch.  Milton  Company. 
Fig.  10.  Milton  Diich.  Eureka  Lake.  South  Yuba  Canal  Com- 
pany. Smartsville  Ditches.  Spring  Valley  and  Cherokee.  Hen- 
dricks. La  Grange  Ditch.  Fig.  11.  La  Grange  Ditch.  Fig  12. 
La  Grange  Wall  Ditch.  Fig.  13.  La  Grange  Flume. — Flumes: 
Flumes  vs.  Ditches.  Grades  Fig.  14.  Flume  Construction. 
Planking.  Sills  and  Posts.  Curves.  Waste-Gates.  Precautions 
against  Cold.  Experience  in  the  Black  Hills.  Fig.  15  Wyom- 
ing and  Dakota  Co.'s  Flume  and  Ditch.  Details  of  Construc- 
tion. Lunlier  :  Table  9.  Table  lo.  Tible  11.  Bracket  Flume. 
Figs.  16  and  17.  Miocene  Co.'s  Bracket  Flume.  Details  and 
Costs  of  Mil  on  Ditch  and  Flumes.  Table  12.  Co-t  of  Milton 
Ditch.  Fig.  18.  Milton  Flume.  Table  13.  Dimensions  and 
Costs   of  Ditches  (including  Flumes),         .....  135 

CHAPTER  XI. 

PIPES   AND    NOZZLES. 

Wrought-Iron  Pipes  :  Inverted  Siphons.  Thickness  of  Iron.  T.i'.jle 
14.  Thickness  and  Weight  of  Iron  for  Pipe.  Fig.  19.  'I'exas 
Creek  Pipe.  Table  15.  Tensile  Strain  on  Wrought-Iron  Pipe. 
Table  16.  Area  and  Weight  of  Wrought-Iron  Pipe.  Riveting. 
Table  17.  Sizes  of  Rivets.  Table  iS.  Details  of  Riveting  a  22- 
inch  Pipe.  Joints.  Fig.  20.  Lead  Joint.  Fig.  21.  Method  of 
Tightening  Leaky  Joints.  Fig.  22.  Elbow  for  Short  Curves. 
Fig.  23.  Method  of  Strapping  Elbows  and  Pipes.     Fig.  24.   .\ic- 


lO  CONTENTS. 


Valve  for  Pipe.  Fig.  25.  Blow-off  for  Pipes.  Fig.  26.  Self- 
Acting  Air- Valve.  Preservation  against  Rust  and  Accidents. 
Filling  Pipes. — Statistics  of  Pipe-Lines  :  La  Grange  Hydraulic 
Mining  Company.  Table  19.  Cost  of  Iron  Pipe  at  North 
Bloomfield.  Spring  Valley  Water  Co.  Table  20.  Details  of 
Construction  of  Spring  Valley  Water  Co  's  Pipe.  Virginia  City 
Water- Works.  Fig.  27.  Profile  of  Pipe-Line  of  Virginia  City 
Water  Co.  Spring  Valley  and  Cherokee  Hydraulic  Mining  Com- 
pany. Fig.  28.  Profile  of  Pipe-Line  of  Spring  Valley  and  Che- 
rokee Co. "s  Pipe.  Table  21.  Detailsof  Spring  Valley  and  Chero- 
kee Pipe.  Flow  of  Water  through  Pipes.  Table  22.  Flow  of  Water 
through  Circular  Pipes.  Pressure  Box  :  La  Grange  Pressure  Box. 
Figs.  29,  30,  31.  North  Bloomfield  Pressure  Box. — Supply  or 
FeeJ  Pipes  :  Fig.  32.  Distributing  Gate. — Discharge  Pipe  or 
Nozzle :  Fig.  33.  Goose  Neck.  Fig.  34.  Globe  Monitor.  Fig. 
35.  Hydraulic  Chief.  Dictator.  Fig  36.  Little  Giant.  Pig. 
37.  Little  Giant  Rifle.  Fig.  38.  Hydraulic  Giant.  Fig.  39. 
Monitor  Hydraulic  Machine.     Deflector,     .....  15S 

CHAPTER   Xn. 

VARIOUS   MECHANICAL   APPLIANCES. 

Derricks,  Hurdy-Gurdy  Wheels :  Experiments  at  North  Bloomfield. 
Table  23.  Experiments  with  Hurdy-Gurdy  Wheels  at  North 
Bloomfield.  Figs.  40  and  41.  Hurdy-Gurdy  Wheel  and  Derrick 
Hoist.  Figs.  42-43.  Hurdy-Gurdy  Wheel  and  Nozzles.  Ex- 
periments at  Empire  Mill.  Tests  at  the  Idaho  Mine.  Fig.  44. 
Pelton  Wheel.  Tests  at  the  University  of  California.  Flat 
Buckets.  Curved  Buckets.  Figs.  45,  46,  47,  48,  49,  50,  51,  52. 
Buckets  for  Hurdy-Gurdy  Wheels.  Fig.  53.  Pelton  Wheel. 
Figs.  54  and  55.  Diagrams  of  Efificiency  of  Pelton  Wheel.  Fig. 
56.  Diagram  of  the  Comparative  Efificiency  of  Wheels.  The 
Pan.  The  Batea.  Fig.  57.  The  Rocker.  Fig.  58.  The  Tom. 
Puddling  Box.     Amalgam  Kettles,      ......  185 

CHAPTER   XIII. 

BLASTING    GRAVEL    BANKS. 

Blast  at  Smartsville.  Fig.  59.  Diagram  of  Powder  Chambers.  Blue 
Point  Blast.  Paragon  Mine  Blast.  Fig.  60.  Blast  at  Paragon 
Mine.  Dardanelles  Mine  Blast.  Blasting  Powder.  Methods 
of  Blasting.  Table  24.  Bank  Blasting  at  the  Manzanita  Mine. 
Firing  by  Electricity.  Fig.  61.  Arrangement  of  wire  for  firing 
by  Electricity.      Tamping,  .         .         .         .         .         .         .  206- 


CONTEXTS.  I  I 

CHAPTER   XIV. 

TUNNELS  AND   SLUICKS. 

PACE 

Tunnels  :  Shafts  for  Tunnels.  Shaft  Timbering.  Second  Shaft.  First 
Washing.  Size  of  Tunnel.  I-ocation  of  Tunnels. — Sluices: 
Grade.  General  Grade  adopted.  Size  of  Sluice.  Details  of 
Construction.  North  Bloomfield  Tunnel  Sluice.  Figs.  62.  63, 
64.  Tunnel  Sluice  Box  at  North  Bloomfield.  Bed-Rock  Claim 
Sluice  Boxes.  La  Grange  Sluice  Boxes. — Riffles  :  Block  Riffles. 
Advantage  of  Block  Riffles.  Life  of  Blocks.  Rock  Riffles. 
Blocks  and  Rocks.  Longitudinal  Riffles.  Bed-Rock  Riffles. — 
Branch  Sluices :  Fig.  65.  Turn-in  Sluice,  Patricksville.  Turn 
out  Sluice.  Fig.  66.  Box  of  Turn-out  Sluice. —  Underctinents  : 
Figs.  67,  68,  69.  Undercurrent  at  North  Bloomfield.  Table 
25.  Lengths  and  Grades  of  Tunnels  at  Smartsville,  Yuba  County, 
Cal.  Table  26.  Lengths,  Grades,  and  Costs  of  Tunnels  in  Ne- 
vada County.  Table  27.  Cost  of  Construction  of  the  French 
Corral  Tunnel  and  Sluices.  Table  28.  Cost  of  Construction 
of  the  Manzanita  Mine  Tunnel  and  Sluices,         ....  215 

CHAPTER   XV. 

TAILINGS   AND   DU.MP. 

Tailings  :  Composition  of  Tailings.  Wear  in  Running  Water.  Ef- 
fects of  Hydraulic  Debris.  Table  29,  Hall's,  and  Table  30, 
Mendell's,  Estimate  of  the  Amount  of  Debris  in  certain  Rivers  in 
California. — Dump  :  Working  on  different  Bed-Rock  Levels  with 
same  Dump.  Tailing  into  Streams.  Experience  at  La  Grange. 
Exceptional  Cases,       .........  236 

CHAPTER    XVL 

WASHING,  OR    HYDRAULICKING. 

Charging  the  Sluices.  Commencing  W'ork.  Caving  Banks.  High 
Banks.  Light.  Electric  Light.  Continuous  Work.  Cleaning 
up.  Treating  the  Quicksilver  and  Amalgam.  Retorting.  Figs. 
70  and  71.  The  Retort,        ........  244 

CHAPTER  XVIL 

THE   DISTRIBUTION   OF   GOLD   IN   SLUICES. 

Distribution  in  Tail  Sluices.  Fig.  72.  Tail  Sluices  and  Undercurrents. 
Table  31.  French  Corral  Undercurrents  ;  Yield  of  the  Under- 
currents, etc.,  at  the  French  Corral  Mine.  Table  32.  Manzanita 
Mine  Sluices.  Table  33.  Distribution  of  Gold  in  the  Manzanita 
Mine  Sluices.  Table  34.  Distribution  of  Gold  in  the  French 
Corral  Sluices.  Table  35.  Distribution  of  Ciold  in  the  North 
Bloomfield  Sluices,       .........  252 


12  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

LOSS  OF   GOLD   AND   QUICKSILVER. 

l-AGK 

Loss  of  Quicksilver.  La  Grange.  North  Bloomfield.  Table  36. 
Loss  of  Quicksilver  and  Yield  of  Bullion  at  North  Bloomfield. 
Delaney  and  New  Kelly  Claims.  Table  37.  Run  at  the  De- 
laney  and  New  Kelly  claims.     Loss  of  Gold 263 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

THE   DUTY    OF  THE   MINER'S   INCH. 

Table  38.  Estimates  of  the  Duty  of  the  Inch,  Mendell.  Table  39. 
Estimates  of  the  Duty  of  the  Inch,  Payson.  Table  40.  Esti- 
mates of  the  Duty  of  the  Inch,  State  Engineer.  Table  41  A  and 
B.  The  Duty  of  the  Inch  at  North  Bloomfield  and  La  Grange,  .  268 

CHAPTER  XX. 

ST.VTISTICS    OF   THE    COSTS    OF     WORKING   AND    THE   YIELD    OF    GRAVEL. 

Table  42.  Details  of  Working  the  French  Hill  Claim.  Table  43. 
Details  of  Working  the  Light  Claim,  Patricksville.  Table  44. 
Details  of  Working  the  Chesnau  Claim.  Table  45.  Details  of 
Working  the  Johnson  Claim.  Table  46.  Details  of  Working  the 
Sicard  Claim.  Table  47.  Resume  of  Workings  by  the  La  Grange 
Co.  Table  48.  Details  of  Working  No.  8  Claim,  North  Bloom- 
field. Table  49.  Classification  of  Mines  and  Mining  Expenses. 
Table  50.  Yield  of  Important  Hydraulic  Claims  in  California. 
Table  51.  Yield  of  Various  Gravel  Claims  in  California.  Table 
52.  Yield  of  Gravel  in  Foreign  Gold  Fields 275 

Appendix  A,  281 

Appendix  B, 289 

Index 293 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 

^'ig-     5- 
Fig.    6. 

Fig-     7  ■ 

Fig.    8. 

Fig. 

Fig. 

Fig. 

Fig. 

Fig. 

Fig. 

Fig. 

Fig. 

Fig. 

Fig. 

Fig.  iq. 

Fig.  20. 

Fig.  21 
Fig.  22. 
Fig.  23. 
Fig.  24. 
Fig.  25. 
Fig.  26. 
Fig.  27. 
Fig.  28. 
Figs.  29, 
Fig.  32. 
Fig.  33- 
Fig.  34. 
Fig.  35- 
Fig.  36- 
Fig.  37. 


Sunny  South  Mine,  Placer  Co.,  Cal , 

Shaft  No.  I,  Malakoff, 

Rankine's  Section  of  Dam,    . 

Dry -Stone  Dam,    .... 

Bowman  Main  Dam,  A  and  li  (2), 

Bowman  Waste  Dam,  A  and  B  (2), 

Con>truction  of  Triangular  Weirs, 

The  Inch  Gauge, 

North  Bloomfield  Main  Ditch, 

Milton  Ditch, 

La  Grange  Ditch, 

La  Grange  Wall  Ditch, 

La  Grange  Flume, 

Flume  Construciion, 

Profile  of  Wyoming  a. id  Dakota  Co.n;):iny  Flume 

Bracket  Flume  of  Miocene  Company, 

Method  of  Hanging  Bracket  Flume, 

Milton  Flume,      .... 

Profile  of  Texas  Creek  Pipe, 

Lead  Joint,  .... 

Method  of  'I'ightening  Leaky  Joints, 

Elbow  for  Short  Curves  in  Pipes, 

Method  of  Strapping  Elbows  and  Pipes 

Air- Valve  for  Pipes, 

Blow-off  for  Pipes, 

Self-acting  Air- Valve, 

Profi'e  of  Virginia  and  Gold   Hill  Water  Co.  Pipe-Lin 

Profile  of  the  Spring  Valley  and  Cherokee  Co.   P 

30,  31.    North  Bloomfield  Pre-sure  Box, 

Distributing  Gate, 

Goose  Neck, 

Craig's  Globe  Monitor, 

The  Hydraulic  Chief, 

The  Little  Giant, 

The  Little  Giant  Rifle, 


pe-L 


facin 


e, 
ine. 


facin 


85 
89 
98 

lOI 

106-7 
III 
121 
125 
139 
139 
141 

141 
142 

143 
g  147 
151 

152 

156 

g  160 

163 
164 
165 
165 
166 
166 
167 
173 


facini 


179 
iSo 
i8i 
181 
182 
182 


H 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

Fig.  38.  The  Hydraulic  Giant. 183 

Fig.  39.   Monitor  Hydraulic  Machine,         ......  184 

Figs.  40,  41.    Hurdy-Gurdy  Wheel  and  Derrick-Hoist,         .         .         .  186-7 

Fig.  42.    The  Hurdy-Gurdy  Wheel,             188 

Fig.  43.   Nozzles  for  Hurdy-Gurdy  Wheels,        .....  189 

Fig.  44.  The  Pelton  Wheel, 193 

Figs.  45,  46,  47,  48,  49,  50,  51,  52.   Buckets  for  Hurdy-Gurdy  Wheels,  194-7 

Fig.  53.   The  Pelton  Wheel, 198 

Figs.  54-55.   Diagrams  showing  the  Eflficiency  of  the  Pelton  Wheel,  199-200 

Fig.  56.   Diagram  showing  the  Comparative  Efficiency  of  Wheels,     .  201 

Fig.  57.  The  Rocker 203 

Fig.  58.  The  Tom,              204 

Fig.  59.   Diagram  of  Powder  Chambers,  Smartsville,            .         .          .  207 

Fig.  60.   Powder  Chambers,  Paragon  Mine,         .....  209 

Fig.  61.   Arrangement  of  Mines  for  Firing  by  Electricity,            .          .  213 

Figs.  62,  63,  and  64.   Tunnel  Sluice  Box  at  North  Bloomfield,    .         .  222 

Fig.  65.   Turn-in  Sluice,  Patricksville,        ......  228 

Fig.  66.   Turn-out  Sluice-Box,    ........  230 

Figs  67,  68,  and  69.   North  Bloomfield  Undercurrents,      ,         .        facing  231 

Figs.  70  and  71.   Retort,              ........  250 

Fig.  72.   Tail  Sluices  and  Undercurrents,   ......  254-5 


Hydraulic  Mining  in  California. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  RECORDS  OF  GOLD-WASHIXG. 

The  records  of  gold-washing  have  been  traced  al- 
most to  the  prehistoric  period.  If  any  reliance  can  be 
placed  upon  the  traditions  which  have  descended  to  us, 
the  yield  from  the  auriferous  deposits  of  the  ancient  world 
must  have  been  enormous.  It  is  a  well  authenticated  fact 
that  the  Greeks  carried  on  from  the  earliest  times  an  ex- 
tensive commercial  intercourse  with  the  people  whcj  lived 
north  and  east  of  the  Euxine  Sea,  and  thus  drew  large- 
ly on  the  gold-fields  of  Siberia,  from  which  source  the 
Gothic  tribe  of  the  Massaget^  also  obtained  their  wealth. 
These  gold  deposits  are  supposed  to  have  been  situated 
in  lat.  53°  to  55°  N.,  and  are  said  to  be  identical  with 
those  worked  by  the  Russians  during  the  present  cen- 
tury. 

Asia  Minor. — The  mountains  and  streams  of  Phrvgia 
and  Lydia  yielded  gold  in  ancient  times,  and  history  has 
familiarized  us  with  the  wonders  of  the  Pactolus.*  from 
whose  famous  golden  sands  Croesus  is  said  to  have  de- 
rived his  wealth.  The  sands  of  Asia  Minor  long  since 
ceased  to  yield  the  precious  metal. 

Italy. —  From  a  passage  in  Strabo  (book  iv.  ch.  6, 
sec.  12)  it  appears  that  imperial  Rome  was  "inundated 
with  a  glut  "  of  gold  from  her  northern  mountains,  the 
Alps.  Polybius  says  that  in  his  times  gold-mines  were 
so  rich  about  Aquileia  .  .  .  that  if  vmi  dug  but  two  feet 

*  Herodotus,  book  v.  c.  loi  ;  Strabo,  book  xviii. 


l6  Till-:    RECORDS    OF    GOLD-WASHING. 

below  the  surface  you  found  gold,  and  that  the  diggings 
generally  were  not  deeper  than  fifteen  feet.  .  .  .  Italians 
aiding  the  barbarians  in  the  working  ior  two  months,  gold 
became  forthwith  one-third  cheaper  over  the  whole  of 
Italy.- 

Gold  alluvia  are  known  to  exist  in  various  localities 
in  Upper  Italy,  but  appear  to  be  poor;  and  at  the  pre- 
sent time  no  gold-washing  is  carried  on,  except,  perhaps, 
bv  a  lew  individual  workers.  The  sands  of  the  Oreo, 
the  Jassin,  the  Po,  and  the  Serio  are  estimated  to  have 
yielded  three  hundred  ounces  of  gold  in   i862.f 

Spain  and  France. — The  Romans  are  stated  to 
have  washed  the  sands  of  st;  eams  along  the  base  of  the 
Pyrenees.:): 

The  Phoenicians  obtained  gold  from. the  bed  of  the 
river  Tagus  i  lOO  B.C.,  and  washings  are  reported  along 
this  stream  as  late  as  1833  a.u.  The  Douro  sands  were 
worked  for  gold  by  the  Arabs  until  1147  a.d.  Up  to  the 
close  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  deposits  of  the  river 
Ariege  vielded  annually  about  one  hundred  pounds  of 
the  precious  metal.  As  late  as  1846  gold- washings  are 
reported  along  the  Rhine  between  Strassburg  and  Phil- 
ippsburg. 

Africa. — ^At  the  present  time  but  little  gold  is  fecund 
within  the  limits  of  Abyssinia  and  Nubia,  though  the  an- 
cient Egyptians  mined  the  precious  metal  in  the  latter 
country.  The  ancient  mines  described  bv  Lenant  Bey 
are  situated  in  a  district  called  Attaki,  or  AUaki,  between 
Berenice  and  Suakin,  on  the  Red  Sea,  one  hundred  and 
twenty  miles  distant  from  Ras-Elba.  They  are  spoken  of 
bv  Diodorus  Siculus,  and  shown  on  one  of  the  oldest 
topographical  maps  extant,  preserved  in  Turin. 

*  '■  SiUiria,"  foot-note,  p.  449  ;  also  Pliny,  book  iii.  c.  6,  on  the  Great  Value  of  the  Mines 
of  Italy. 

+  "  Report  on  Precious  Metals,"  \V.  P.  Blake,  Paris  Universal  Exposition,  1867. 

*  Strabo,  book  iv.  p.  290 ;  Caesar,  "  De  Bello  Gallico,"  iii.  21  ;  Jacob's  "  Inquiry  into  the 
Precious  Metals,"  p.  53. 

§  See  ■■  Aeatharchiaes  d*-  Rubro  Mari,"  in  Diodorus,  b.  iii.  c.  12-15;  "  Account  of  the 
Mines  in  N'ubia  and  Ethiopia"  ;  also  Jacob's  "  Inquiry  into  the  Precious  Metals,"  ch.  11. 


THE    RKC(JR1)S   OF   GOLD-WASHING.  I7 

The  earliest  record  of  the  Egyptian  mines  dates  Irom 
the  twelfth  dynasty.  The  principal  mines  of  Kordofan 
are  between  Darfur  and  Abyssinia.  These  mines  are 
mentioned  by  Herodotus. 

Nearly  all  the  gold  obtained  in  Africa  has  come  from 
alluvial  deposits.  The  country  south  of  Sahara,  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Senegal  to  Cape  Palmas,  contains  numerous 
gold-bearing  alluvions,  which  are  worked  by  the  negroes. 
The  product  of  these  mines  is  conveyed  by  caravans  to 
Morocco,  Fez,  and  Algiers,  and  forms  a  principal  article 
of  export  from  the  Guinea  coasts.  Gold-dust  is  ob- 
tained also  on  the  southeast  coast,  between  lat.  25°  and 
22°  S.,  opposite  Madagascar,  in  the  country  of  Sofala, 
by  some  writers  identified  with  the  region  from  which 
Solomon  obtained  his  wealth.  Recently  alluvial  de- 
posits have  been  worked  in  the  Transvaal,  Leydenburg 
district  (lat.  25°  S.,  long.  35°  E.),  where  coarse  nuggets 
of  gold,  weighing  as  much  as  eleven  pounds,  have  been 
found. 

The  approximate  g<5ld  export  of  all  Africa  from  1493 
to  1875,  according  to  Dr.  Soetbeer,  amounted  to  ;^io6,- 
857,000. 

India. — In  the  Bombay  Presidency  gold-bearing  de- 
posits are  -reported  to  exist  in  the  districts  of  Belgaum, 
Dharwar,  and  Kaladgi,  in  the  southern  Mahratta  country, 
and  the  province  of  Kattywar.  The  sands  in  the  streams 
arising  from  the  Surtur  series  are  auriferous,  as  are  also 
those  of  the  river  Aji.  The  central  provinces  of  India 
contain  numerous  small  deposits  of  gold,  but  the  nimiber 
of  gold-washings  reported  is  comparatively  very  limited. 
The  gold-fields  of  Madras  have  recently  attracted  con- 
siderable attention.  The  ancient  mines  of  these  regions 
have  latterly  been  rediscovered.  The  known  accumu- 
lated wealth  of  the  ruling  dynasties  of  southern  India 
is  supposed  to  have  been  obtained  originally  from  these 
sources  and  from  Malabar. 

Brough  Smyth,  in  his  report  on  the  Wynaad  gold- 


1 8  THE    RECORDS   OF   GOLD-WASHIXG. 

fields,  1879-80,  States  that  the  country  is  covered  with 
tailings,  an  evidence  of  the  industry  of  the  Korumbas. 

In  the  province  of  Mysore  alluvions  (containing  very 
little  gold)  are  known  to  exist  near  Betmangla,  and  gold 
quartz  is  being  mined  at  present  in  different  parts  of  the 
province. 

A  number  of  the  rivers  which  have  their  sources  on 
the  borders  of  the  Champaran  district  and  Nepal,  in  the 
State  of  Travancore,  contain  auriferous  sands,  and  gold- 
washing  is  carried  on  in  these  places  at  the  commence- 
ment and  termination  of  the  rains.  Auriferous  sands  oc- 
cur in  the  Kumaun  and  Garhwal  rivers.  The  sands  of  the 
river  Koh,  near  Naginah,  in  the  Mai-adabad  district,  are 
said  to  contain  considerable  gold.  In  Punjab  all  the  riv- 
ers are  repoi'ted  to  contain  auriferous  sands.  Gold-wash- 
ing has  been  practised  in  this  district  for  many  years,  and 
was  formerly  a  source  of  large  revenue  to  the  government. 

Asiatic  Islands. — The  sands  of  the  streams  of  Cey- 
lon, Formosa,  the  Philippine  Islands,'^  and  some  of  the 
islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago  are  known  to  contain 
gold  ;  at  Borneo  extensive  mining  operations  are  carried 
on  by  the  Chinese  and  the  natives,  over  thirty  thousand 
of  the  former  being  now  employed  in  the  gold-fields. 

China. — In  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century  the 
celebrated  Chinese  traveller,  Hiuen-thsang,  describes  the 
country  north  of  the  Kuen-Lun,  towards  the  desert  of  Gobi, 
as  an  auriferous  district.  It  is  either  here  or  in  the  Thir 
betan  highlands,  east  of  the  Bolor  chain,  between  the 
Himalaya  and  the  Kuen-Lun,  west  of  Iskardo,  that  Hum- 
boldt locates  the  land  of  gold  sand  spoken  of  by  the  Dara- 
das  (Dardar,  or  Derder),  mentioned  in  the  Mahabharata, 
and  in  the  fragments  collected  by  Megasthenes.f 

According  to  Pumpelly  :{:  gold  is  found  in  fourteen  out 

*  See  Jacob's  "  Inquiry  into  the  Precious  Metals,"  pp.  367-377. 

+  Humboldt's  "  Cosmos,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  511-516  ;  Jacob's  "  Inquiry  into  the  Precious  Metals," 
p.  25. 

+  Extract  "Geological  Researches  in  China,  Mongolia,  and  Japan,"  1862-65.  Raphael 
Pumpelly.     Smithsonian  Contrib.,  Washington,  1866. 


THE   RECORDS    OF   GOLD-WASHING.  I9 

of  eighteen  provinces  of  the  empire.  The  greatest  num- 
ber of  washings  is  in  the  province  of  Sze-Chuen  (Se« 
Chuen)  and  along  the  branches  of  the  Kuen-Lun  moun- 
tain chain,  which  have  an  east  and  west  trend,  penetrat- 
ing into  Central  China  between  the  Wei  River  and  the 
Sze-Chuen  boundary.  Placers  are  numerous  at  the  base 
of  the  water-shed  between  Kwei-Chow  and  Hu-Nan,  and 
through  the  centre  of  Shantung,  from  southwest  to  north- 
east.    Most  of  these  placers  furnish  coarse  gold. 

In  the  province  of  Shensi,  on  the  northern  frontiers  at 
Hopoota  and  the  Hala  Mountains,  much  gold-dust  is  ob- 
tained annually.  "  Hundreds  of  thousands "  of  natives 
find  employment  in  washing  the  sands  of  the  river  Kinsha- 
Kiang.  On  the  banks  of  the  Lou-tsze  Kiang  there  are 
numerous  gold-washings,  and  gold  is  reported  to  be  found 
in  almost  all  of  the  streams  in  the  eastern  portion  of  Shan- 
tung. 

Consul  Adkins  (1877),  at  Newchwang,  reports  rich 
diggings  in  the  valley  of  Chia-t'i-kou  thirty  miles  long,  and 
about  five  or  six  days'  journey  east  by  south  from  Kirwin 
and  Newchwang. 

Henry  F.  Holt's  "  Notes  on  Gold  in  China,"  published 
in  Lock's  work  on  "  Gold,"  give  very  interesting  infor- 
mation of  the  condition  of  gold-mining  in  this  country, 
and  Pumpelly  furnishes  a  table  of  the  placers. 

Japan. — Gold  was  first  discovered  in  Japan  in  749 
A.D.,*  and  the  art  of  mining  is  said  to  have  been  intro- 
duced from  China  about  the  close  of  the  same  century. 
The  gold-fields  of  the  Musa  valley  are  reported  to  have 
been  worked  by  miners  from  Chikusen  A.D.  1205.  Japan 
has  always  been  represented  as  a  country  rich  in  precious 
metals.  Marco  Polo,  in  the  thirteenth  centurv,  said  of 
Zipangu  :  "  They  had  gold  in  the  greatest  abundance,  its 
sources  being  inexhaustible."  "  Great  abundance  "  of 
gold  was  reported  by  Kaempfer  in  1727.  The  export  of 
precious  metals,  chiefly  gold,  from   1550  to   1639  by  the 

*  According  to  Dr.  Geerts. 


20  THE   RECORDS   OF   GOLD-WASHING. 

Portuguese  was  about  $300,000,000,  and  from  1649  to 
1671  the  Dutch  traders  sent  home  $200,000,000,  two-thirds 
of  which  was  silver.*  In  the  latter  year  the  Japanese 
government  forbade  further  export.  The  maximum  gold 
production  of  this  country  was  reached  during  the  last 
half  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Since  that  time  the  yield 
of  gold  has  decreased  steadily,  and  the  product  in  1874  is 
estimated  bv  J.  H.  Godfrey,  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Min- 
ing Office,  at  12,000  ounces  Troy. 

The  deposits  from  which  this  wealth  was  drawn  were 
principal!}'  shallow  placers.  Prof.  Munroe  says  that  the 
present  gravel-beds  in  Japan  are  of  fluviatile  origin,  shal- 
low, limited  in  extent,  and  uniformly  poor.  The  richest 
deposits,  near  Yesso,  contain  less  than  seven  cents  per 
cubic  yard,  and  the  average  of  the  best  does  not  exceed 
five  and  one-half  cents.f 

Hussia. — Russia  possesses  extensive  gold-bearing  de- 
posits. The  principal  mining  districts  are  those  of  the 
Ural,:}:  the  Altai  region  in  western  Siberia,  western  Turk- 
istan,  the  northern  and  southern  Yeniseisk  fields,  the  cir- 
cuit of  Atchinsk  and  Minusinsk,  Kansk  and  Nijneudinsk 
in  the  government  of  Irkutsk,  Verkneudinsk,  Barguzinsk 
in  Trans-Baikalia,  Olekminsk,  the  basin  of  the  Lena,  the 
country  along  the  Amur,  and  Nerchinsk. 

According  to  Lock  ("  Gold,"  p.  437)  the  total  3aeld  of 
all  the  Russian  gold- washings  from  18 14  to  i860  mclusive 
(forty-seven  years)  amounted  to  35,487  poods,  or  1,548,661 
pounds  Troy  of  alloyed  gold.§ 

In  the  reports  of  the  United  States  Commissioners  to 
the  Universal  Exposition  at  Paris,  1878,  vol.  iv.  p.  248, 
James  D.  Hague  states  the  approximate  total  production 

*  Griffis  ("  Mikado's  Empire,"  p.  602)  says  that  "  Japan  exported  during  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries  £103,000,000  in  precious  metals." 

+  See  "  Mineral  Wealth  of  Japan,"  by  Henry  S.  Munroe,  E.M.,  Trans.  Am.  Inst.  Min. 
Eng'rs.,  vol.  v. 

t  Gmelin's  *'  Journey  through  Siberia,"  4  vols.     Gottingen,  1751-2. 

§  For  production  of  gold  in  Russia  see  also  Jacob's  work,  appendix  pp.  414,  415  ;  Report 
of  the  United  States  Monetary  Commission,  p.  571  ;  Sir  Hector  Hay's  "  Parliamentary  Re- 
port on  Silver,"  1876,  App.  25. 


THE    RECORDS   OF   GOLD-WASHING. 


21 


of  gold  in  Russia  from  1753  to  1876  inclusive  to  be  $730,- 
000,000.  He  also  gives  the  following  table  showing  the 
yield  of  the  auriferous  deposits  during  eleven  years : 


TABLE  L 


Years. 

No.  of 
Explora- 
tions. 

Quantity  of  sand  and 

mineral  washed. 

Poods. 

Quantity  of 
gold  ex- 
tracted. 
Poods, 

Approximate  value 
of  product. 

1867 

878 

968,423,325 

1,650 

$17,958,600 

1868 

993 

1,177,288,244 

1,711 

18,622,524 

1869 

1,129 

1,054,570,392 

2,007 

21,844,188 

1870 

1,208 

983.475-095 

2.157 

23,476,788 

1871 

978 

1,081,518,424 

2,400 

26,121,600 

1872 

1.055 

1,044,027,585 

2.331 

25,370,604 

1873 

1,018 

954,648,764 

2,025 

22,040,700 

1874 

1,035 

937,578,045 

2,027 

22,061,868 

1875 

1,092 

1,007,293,492 

1,996 

21,724,464 

1876 

1,130 

1,022,543,362 

2,054 

22,355,736 

1877 

2,430 

26,448,120 

The  aggregate  of  the  poods  is  about  184,000,000  tons 
of  2,000  pounds  avoirdupois,  and  the  corresponding  pro- 
duct is  valued  at  $221,576,472,  assuming  that  the  weight 
of  gold  given  is  pure  metal. 

The  Ural.— The  gold-fields  of  the  Ural  extend  from 
the  sixty-first  parallel  northward  about  six  hundred  and 
ninety  miles  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  south  into  the  Cos- 
sack and  Baskir  districts.  The  most  valuable  deposits 
have  been  found  in  the  districts  of  Miask  and  Kashgar. 
At  the  former  the  largest  nuggets  have  been  obtained, 
and  at  the  latter  emeralds  and  pink  topazes  occur  asso- 
ciated with  the  gold.  Near  Bogoslofsk  is  the  celebrated 
mine  of  Peschanka.  The  ■  production  of  these  districts 
has  steadily  fallen  off  since  i860 — a  fact  attributable  to 
the  impoverishment  of  the  placers,  which,  nevertheless, 
are  calculated  by  Bogoliubsky  to  represent  a  value  of 
$61,660,000, 

The  Ekaterinburg  group  occupies  the  central  Ural. 
The  whole  eastern  slope  of  the  Ural,  north  and  south  of 


22  THE    RECORDS   OP^   GOLD-WASHING. 

Ekaterinburg,  is  auriferous.  The  principal  mine  of  this 
district  is  the  Beriozofka,  which  has  produced  largely. 
The  first  washings  were  commenced  here  in  1814,  but  up 
to  1 86 1  there  was  little  or  no  improvement  made  in  the 
method  of  working. 

In  the  southern  Ural  lies  the  celebrated  region  of 
Zlataust,  lat.  55°  11'  N.,  long,  yf  26'  E.  The  gold  allu- 
vion is  found  along  the  lateral  streams  which  feed  the 
Miask.  This  river  was  remarkable  for  its  minerals  and 
precious  stones.  The  Miask  placers  were  the  richest 
in  the  Ural,  but  of  late  years  their  product  has  been 
very  small. 

The  Altai. — Mining  in  the  Altai  is  said  to  date  from 
a  very  early  period.  The  discovery  of  the  alluvial  de- 
posits along  the  Fomiha  River  in  1830  gave  a  new  im- 
petus to  gold-mining  in  Siberia,  but  richer  fields  have  in 
later  years  attracted  the  miners,  and  the  production  of 
this  district  appears  to  have  fallen  to  one-tenth  of  what  it 
was  twenty  years  ago. 

Tiirkistan.  —  The  auriferous  deposits  in  western 
Turkistan,  along  the  course  of  the  river  Tentek,  are  said 
to  have  been  worked  by  the  Chinese.  Kuznetsof,  a  pos- 
tal contractor,  in  1868  tested  some  old  Chinese  diggings 
at  Kizil-togoi,  but  from  a  summer's  work  at  considerable 
expense  obtained  only  one  pound  of  gold.  This  has  dis- 
couraged further  mining.  It  is  the  opinion  of  many 
that  the  detritus  of  Turkistan  is  not  at  pixsent  worth 
working. 

The  Northern  Yeniseisk. — The  northern  Yeniseisk 
fields  were  discovered  in  1832.  All  the  rivers  partake  of 
the  character  of  mountain  torrents.  The  most  remunera- 
tive district  was  discovered  in  1839,  between  the  rivers 
Yenisei  and  Podkamenny  Tungusska. 

The  T^ya  River  is  about  one  hundred  or  one  hundred 
and  fifty  feet  wide.  The  gold  deposits  along  its  banks 
have  been  explored  and  found  too  poor  to  work.  On  the 
river  Noiba  placers  were  worked  in  1842.     The  country 


THE    RECORDS   OF   GOLD-WASHING.  23 

was  abandoned  subsequently,  but  reopened  in  1854.  The 
auriferous  stratum  lies  in  the  bed  of  the  river,  or  close  to 
it,  and  varies  in  width  from  one  hiuidred  to  three  hun- 
dred feet,  with  a  depth  of  from  one  to  eii^ht  feet.  These 
placers  now  produce  annually  a  large  amount  of  gold. 

In  the  Yenashimo  valley  the  alluvions  vary  from  two 
hundred  to  fourteen  hundred  feet  in  width,  and  do  not 
exceed  eight  feet  in  depth.  They  were  discovered  in 
185 1,  and  up  to  1864  produced  largely. 

As  early  as  1840  the  attention  of  gold-hunters  was  at- 
tracted to  the  alluvions  along  the  Kalami,  a  tributary  of 
the  Yenashimo,  and  two  years  later  work  was  commenced 
in  this  valley.  These  placers  were  very  productive,  al- 
though the  auriferous  material  averages  only  from  two 
and  a  half  to  eight  feet  in  thickness.  The  mines  on  the 
Savaglikon  are  said  to  have  produced  from  1843  to  1864 
$2  5 ,000,000. 

In  the  valley  of  the  Chirimba  several  deposits  have 
been  washed,  and  from  the  beds  of  the  Aktolik  a  large 
amount  of  gold  has  been  produced,  the  gravel  having  a 
depth  of  from  seven  to  ten  feet  and  varying  in  breadth 
from  seven  hundred  to  fourteen  hundred  feet.  Mining 
operations  in  the  northern  Yeniseisk  begin  in  May  and 
continue  until  about  the  first  week  in  September. 

The  Soiitliern  Yeniseisk. — In  the  southern  Yeni- 
seisk gold-fields  the  rivers  have  heavy  grades.  In  many 
districts  a  scarcity  of  water  prevails  during  the  summer 
months.  Only  three  of  the  river  basins  are  noted  for 
their  auriferous  alluvions,  the  others  holding  a  secondary 
rank.  The  most  important  valley  is  that  of  the  Uderey, 
where  extensive  gold-placers  have  been  worked  since 
1845,  but  are  now  nearlv  exhausted.  There  are  nume- 
rous placers  along  the  river  Murojnaia  and  its  tributaries 
which  flow^  into  the  southern  Yeniseisk  fields.  The  de- 
posits have  been  worked  since  1841. 

The  Great  Pit  River  is  the  administrative  boundary 
between  the  northern  and  southern  systems.     Its  length  is 


24  THE    RECORDS   OF   GOLD-WASHING. 

about  two  hundred  and  thirty  miles,  and  its  valley  is  from 
two  hundred  and  fifty  to  three  thousand  feet  wide.  The 
river  in  places  is  very  narrow,  forming  rapids.  On  the 
Burunia  and  the  Tujimo,  feeders  of  the  Gorbilka,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Pit,  there  were  lormerly  some  washings. 
Below  the  Gorbilka  the  Pit  is  joined  by  the  Penchenga, 
which,  with  its  numerous  feeders,  especially  the  Greater 
Lower  OUonokon,  is  auriferous.  The  pay  alluvion  along 
the  last-named  tributary  is  confined  to  a  channel  from 
fifty-six  to  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  feet  wide,  and  is 
from  eight  to  twelve  feet  deep.  In  general  the  valleys  of 
the  Penchenga  are  considered  too  poor  to  work,  though 
on  some  ot  the  feeders  washing  has  been  carried  on. 

On  the  Untuguna,  a  feeder  of  the  Ayakta,  gold  has 
been  washed,  and  almandmes,  rubies  (poor  qualit}-),  tour- 
malines, and  an  abundance  of  zircon  have  been  found. 

Atcliiiisk  unci  Minusinsk  Fields. — The  Atchinsk 
and  Minusinsk  fields,  which  have  contributed  for  many 
3xars  to  the  gold  production  of  Siberia,  have  declined 
lately  in  importance. 

Ktuisk  and  Nijnendinsk.  —  Kansk  and  Nijneu- 
dinsk,  in  the  governments  of  Yeniseisk  and  Irkutsk,  for- 
merly produced  a  large  amount  ot  gold  annually,  but  of 
late  3'ears  their  \ield  has  been  much  reduced. 

Verkueudinsk. — The  Verkneudinsk  district,  which 
is  southeast  of  Lake  Baikal,  produced  up  to  1874  some 
17,640  pounds  of  gold,  but  in  1877  its  production  was  only 
480  pounds.  North  of  this  field  are  the  auriferous  tracts  in 
the  basin  of  the  Lena,  which  have  been  w^orked  since  1867. 

Barguzinsk,  Olekiuinsk. — The  Barguzinsk  dis- 
trict, in  Tians-Baikalia,  is  imperfectl}'  known.  The  Olek- 
minsk  circuit  is  situated  in  the  basins  of  the  Vitim  and 
Olekma,  tributaries  of  the  Lena,  where  extensive  mining 
operations  have  been  carried  on.  This  district  is  one  of 
the  most  promising  centres  of  gold-mining  in  Siberia,  al- 
though the  climate  is  very  severe  and  the  ground  is 
frozen  during  the  entire  year. 


THE   RECORDS   OF   GOLD-WASHING.  25 

Amur. — 111  the  Amur  region  the  gold-mining  indus- 
try has  been  developed  successfully,  especially  along  the 
Zehya,  the  Burehya,  and  the  Amgun  rivers,  but  its  pro- 
gress has  been  checked  by  the  scantiness  of  population. 
Two  thousand  men  are  said  to  be  employed  on  the  rivers 
Ura  and  Oldoi  washing  the  alluvions,  which  are  about 
seven  feet  thick.  The  placers  of  the  Amur  basin,  in 
Trans-Baikalia,  are  a  comparatively  recent  discovery. 
Gold  is  widely  disseminated  along  the  chief  affluents  of 
this  river,  and  the  deposits  are  easily  worked. 

This  basin  is  reported  to  have  yielded,  up  to  1875,  a 
profit  of  ;^3, 500,000.  The  auriferous  deposits  are  esti- 
mated by  Bogoliubsky  to  be  one  thousand  miles  long, 
three  hundred  and  fiftv  feet  wide,  and  to  average  five  feet 
in  depth,  containing  i6|-  grains  per  3,600  pounds.  Only 
one-half  of  the  basin  is  as  yet  explored. 

Placers  are  found  on  the  islands  in  the  Sea  of  Japan,  in 
Strelok  Bay,  and  along  the  shore  of  the  Okhotsk  Sea. 

Nerchinsk. — The  placers  in  the  Nerchinsk  district 
are  generally  frozen.  Detritus  which  yields  less  than  i 
pennyweight  per  1,800  pounds  has  been  found  unprofit- 
able to  work. 

Brazil. — In  1543  gold  was  known  to  exist  in  Brazil 
(Walsh,  vol.  ii.  p.  loi),  deposited  in  the  beds  of  streams. 
The  Indians  at  that  period  are  said  to  have  used  it  to 
make  fish-hooks.  Humboldt  ("  New  Spain,"  vol.  iii.  p. 
.401)  says  that  gold-placers  were  first  discovered  in  1577. 
The  greatest  prosperity  of  the  gold-washings  was  in  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  centurv. 

The  precious  metal  was  first  found  in  the  Riberao. 
a  tributary  of  the  Rio  das  Mortes,  or  River  of  Death. 
This  name  commemorates  a  blood}'  encounter  which  took 
place  between  the  gold-hunters,  who,  it  is  said,  met  and 
"  set  upon  each  other  like  famished  tigers,  impelled  by 
the  auri  sacra  fames T  * 

In  the  vicinity  of  the  Riberao  there  is  abundant  evi- 

*  Walsh,  '■  Travels  in  Brazil,"  vol.  i.  p.  104. 


26  THE    RECORDS   OF   GOLD-WASHING. 

dence  of  the  extensive  search  made  for  gold.  The  banks 
are  everywhere  furrowed  and  the  vegetable  mould  has 
been  entirely  removed.  Nothing  remains  but  the  red 
dirt,  cut  into  squares  by  channels  divided  by  narrow 
ridges.  These  channels  were  used  for  washing  gravel, 
and  were  cut  on  an  inclined  plane.  The  water  was  intro- 
duced at  the  head  of  them,  the  dirt  was  then  thrown  in, 
and  the  lighter  particles  of  clay  were  washed  away,  while 
the  gold  remained  behind.* 

The  first  placers  in  the  country  were  called  "  cata." 
The  surface  dirt  which  contained  gold  was  mined  until 
the  "  cascalho,"  or  cement-gravel,  was  reached.  This  was 
broken  up  by  pickaxes,  brought  to  the  river,  and  washed. 
The  first  improvement  introduced  was  to  conduct  the 
water  to  the  ground  and  wash  the  gravel  on  the  spot. 
These  works  were  called  "  lavras,"  and  hundreds  of  them 
were  to  be  seen  on  the  banks  of  the  Rio  das  Mortes.  A 
more  improved  method  was  practised  subsequently. 

In  some  districts  water-wheels  were  used  to  assist  in 
the  drainage  of  the  excavations,  but  were  found  so  un- 
manageable that  they  were  thrown  aside,  and  the  negroes 
were  employed  to  pack  off  the  gravel  and  rubbish  on 
their  heads  in  small  casks.f 

According  to  Dr.  Soetbeer,  from  1691  to  1875  (one 
hundred  and  eighty-five  years)  the  gold  production  of 
Brazil  amounted  to  2,281,510  pounds  Troy.  By  far  the 
greater  part  was  derived  from  alluvial  deposits  by  river- 
washing.  Hartt  X  is  of  the  opinion  that  there  are  still 
extensive  surface  deposits  which,  with  modern  appliances, 
can  be  worked  successfully  on  a  large  scale,  and  limited 
washings  now  occur  in  almost  every  province  in  the 
empire. 

Chili. — Chili  contains  numerous  auriferous  deposits, 
which,  according  to  Schmidtmeyer,  extend  over  most  of 
the  coast.     The  principal  deposits  are  those  near  Copiapo, 

*  Walsh,  vol.  ii.  p.  105.  t  Ibid.,  pp.  112,  113. 

t  "  Geological  and  Physical  Geography  of  Brazil." 


THE   RECORDS   OF   GOLD-WASHING.  2/ 

Guasco,  La  Ligua,  Petorca,  Coquimbo,  Tiltil,  Caren,  and 
Talca.  The  washings  of  Aconcagua  and  La  Ligua  have 
been  the  most  productive  and  extensive.  Gold-bearing 
drift  has  been  reported  as  existing  throughout  the  south 
of  ChiH,  fifty  miles  back  from  the  sea-coast,  about  the 
latitude  of  Coquimbo.  Crosmer  ( Blake's  "  Report  on 
the  Precious  Metals,"  1867)  mentions  that  gold  deposits, 
which  do  not  appear  to  have  been  formed  b)'  the  de- 
composition of  regular  veins,  are  found  in  decomposed 
granite  and  red  clay  near  Valparaiso.  Similar  deposits 
occur  along  the  flanks  of  the  Andes,  the  most  extensive 
being  east  of  Chilian. 

During  three  hundred  and  thirt^'-one  years,  ending  in 
1875,  the  gold  product  of  Chili  approximated  an  annual 
average  of  $600,000,  principall}'  from  the  washings  of 
river-beds.  Recent  attempts  by  American  companies  to 
work  the  deposits  by  the  hydraulic  process  have  not  been 
attended  with  success,  the  yield  of  gold  being  much 
smaller  than  anticipated  and  the  supply  of  water  being 
too  limited. 

Bolivia. — The  statistics  of  Dr.  Soetbeer  show  that 
from  1545  to  1875  Bolivia  produced  gold  to  the  amount 
of  646.800  pounds,  or  ^"41, 01 3, 300,  derived  principally 
from  the  washings  of  river-beds  and  shallow  placers,  the 
works  on  the  river  Tipuani  being  the  most  celebrated. 
The  deposits  seem  to  be  widely  distributed  throughout 
the  country,  but  detailed  information  concerning  them  is 
unobtainable. 

Peru. — In  Peru  gold  was  gathered  by  the  Incas  in 
large  amounts.  Under  the  Spanish  rule  more  than 
$33,000,000  are  said  to  have  been  extracted  from  the 
mines  and  washings  of  Caravaya.  The  discovery  of 
these  placers  was  made  in  1542,  and  the  production  of 
gold  from  this  vicinity  continued  until  1767.  when  the 
town  of  San  Gavan.  containing  four  thousand  families 
and  a  large  treasure,  was  surprised  and  entirely  destroyed 
by  the  Indians. 


28  THE    RECORDS   OF   GOLD-WASHING. 

In  1849  the  attention  of  miners  was  again  attracted  to 
Caravaya  by  reported  discoveries  of  a  great  abundance  of 
gold  in  the  sands  of  one  of  the  Caravaya  rivers.  Num- 
bers of  adventurers  visited  the  country,  but  returned  un- 
successful. There  are  gold-washings  on  the  Chaluma 
River  and  its  tributaries.  The  region  of  San  Juan  del 
Oro  was  once  famous  for  its  yield.  The  sands  of  the 
tributaries  of  the  Purus  are  said  to  contain  gold,  and 
those  of  the  Piquitiri  are  known  to  be  auriferous. 

Large  deposits  were  worked  with  great  proht  up  to 
1S20  in  the  province  of  Parinacochas,  department  of 
Ayacucho,  along  the  banks  of  the  Huanca-huanca  River. 

There  are  numerous  auriferous  deposits  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Sandia,  department  of  Puno,  some  of  which  have 
been  and  still  are  being  worked  in  a  primitive  style. 

The  present  condition  of  the  gold  regions  of  Peru 
is  unknown  to  the  world  at  large.  The  most  definite 
data  of  the  production  of  gold  from  this  country  are 
given  by  Dr.  Soetbeer,  who  says  that  from  1533  to  1875 
the  output  aggregated  £22,SiS,-^S-  P^^  Soldan's  "Geo- 
graphical Dictionar}-  of  Peru  "  contains  much  late  infor- 
mation. 

Venezuela. — At  Caratal,  State  of  Guayana,  in  Vene- 
zuela, small  cjuantities  of  gold  have  been  obtained  from 
the  alluvial  depcjsits.  This  field  has  been  described  mi- 
nutely by  Le  Neve  Foster,  from  whose  explorations  the 
latest  information  is  obtained.  The  deposits  are  situated 
about  a  hundred  and  sixt}'  miles  E.S.E.  of  Ciudad  Bolivar. 
In  the  valley  of  the  Mocupia  gold-washing  was  carried 
on  as  early  as  1857.  Large  placers  have  been  recently 
discovered  about  fifty  miles  northeast  of  Caratal.  The 
gold  product  of  the  Caratal  mines  from  1866  to  1879  i"^- 
clusive  is  approximated  at  $14,000,000,  and  the  mining  re- 
gion of  Guayana  is  reported  to  have  produced  since  1874 
about  $1,250,000  annuallv. 

The  auriferous  alluvions  near  the  river  Yuruari  and 
along-  the   banks  of  the   Rio  de   Santa   Cruz   have  been 


THE   RECORDS   OF   GOLD-WASMIXG.  29 

worked  for  years  by  the  Indians,  and  at  Tesorero  placer- 
mining  is  still  carried  on. 

Expeditions  from  Europe  in  search  of  one  of  the  many 
El  Dorados  have  visited  this  country  and  sailed  up  the 
Orinoco.  Humboldt  ("Personal  Narrative,"  vol.  3,  pp. 
23-44)  gives  an  interesting  account  of  this  whole  matter. 

U.  S.  of  Colombia. — The  annals  of  ijold-minino-  in 
the  United  States  of  Colombia  are  replete  with  interest- 
ing information.  The  famous  El  Dorado  visited  bv  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh  m  15 17,  and  by  the  buccaneers  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  is  situated  in  the  province  of  Cas- 
tilla  del  Oro.  The  Cana  mines  of  this  district,  which 
were  worked  by  slave  labor,  3'ielded  largely,  accord- 
ing to  tradition,  during  the  seventeenth  centurv.  The 
mines  of  Choco,  on  the  western  side  of  the  Andes,  are 
classed  by  Schmidtmeyer  among  the  most  productive 
in  the  west  of  America.  These  mines  (which  contain 
gold  and  platinum)  are  located  on  affiuents  of  the  river 
Atrato. 

The  Spaniards  in  former  da^-s  carried  on  extensive 
mining  operations  near  Malineca,  on  the  river  Tuvra.  The 
Mina  Real,  in  the  Cerro  del  Espiritu  Santo,  at  Santa  Cruz 
de  Cana,  is  said  to  have  produced  a  large  amount  of  gold. 
Late  reports  of  this  mine  and  mining  district  are  verv  un- 
favorable, and  cast  grave  doubts  upon  the  correctness  of 
the  statements  of  its  former  production. 

Auriferous  alluvions  occur  in  the  vicinitv  of  Picde 
Cuesta,  at  the  head  of  the  river  Lebrija,  in  the  province  of 
Parnpluna.  All  the  rivers  in  Darien  which  How  directlv 
into  the  Pacific  are  said  to  contain  gold.  Late  reports 
(1881)  state  that  the  sands  .of  the  river  Dibulla  and  the  Rio 
de  Sevilla  are  highly  auriferous.  The  rivers  of  Santiago, 
Concepcion,  Berrera,  Zapaterito,  San  Antonio,  and  San 
Bartolomo,  which  were  noted  formerly  for  their  gold- 
washings,  continue  to  the  present  time  to  yield  remune- 
rative returns  to  the  miner.  Rich  alluvions  have  been 
lately  discovered  below  the  Falls  of  San  Jago,  where  ex- 


30  THE    RECORDS   OF  GOLD-WASHING. 

tensive  deposits  are  reported.  Dr.  Soetbeer  states  that 
the  g-old  production  of  New  Granada  from  1537  to  1875 
was  ;^  169.422,750. 

3Iexico.— Cortez's  exploring  parties  in  Mexico*  ob- 
tained gold  from  the  beds  of  rivers  several  hundred  miles 
from  the  capital.  Prescott  says  that  gold,  either  cast 
into  bars  or  in  the  form  of  dust,  was  part  of  the  regular 
tribute  of  the  southern  provinces  of  the  empire. f  The 
gold  product  of  Mexico  at  present  is  principally  from 
quartz-mines,  only  a  small  amount  being  obtained  by  the 
**  gambusinos,"  or  native  prospectors,  who  wash  with  the 
batea  in  the  placers  scattered  here  and  there  through  the 
country.  There  are  rumors  of  large  bonanzas  in  the  beds 
of  streams  in  certain  localities,  and  several  attempts  have 
been  made  to  reach  this  wealth  by  turning  the  rivers,  but 
hitherto  without  success. 

The  gold  in  the  placers  is  sometimes  distributed  in  the 
sands,  in  small  quantities  so  far  as  known.  In  many  dis- 
tricts the  gambusinos  obtain  it,  principally  from  crevices 
in  the  bed-rock,  to  reach  which  small  shafts  are  sunk, 
often  to  a  considerable  depth. 

Avi.stralasia.— The  most  important  gold-fields  of  Aus- 
tralasia ■;{:  are  situated  in  the  colonies  of  Victoria  and 
New  South  Wales ;  Queensland  and  South  Australia  like- 
wise contain  gold  alluvions. 

Victoria. — The  gold  product  of  Victoria,  according 
to  the  mineral  statistics  for  1880,  aggregated  529,129 
ounces,  of  which  amount  299,926  ounces  came  from  the 
alluvial  deposits.  Although  the  old  placers  have  l^een 
worked  extensively,  and  exhausted  in  many  cases,  the 
^•ield  has  been  increased  latterl}'  by  the  opening  up  of  new 
gold-producing  areas  and  by  improved  methods  of  work. 
The  total  quantity  of  gold  produced  in  Victoria  from  its 
discovery  in  185 1  to  the  end  of  1880  is  placed  officially  at 

*  See  Helps,  "  Spanish  Conquest  of  America"  ;  also  Las  Casas,  "  History  of  the  Indies." 
+  Prescott's  "Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vol.  i.  p.  139. 

t  See  "Gold,"  by  A.  G.  Lock,  from  which  work  the  above  notes  on  Australasia  are 
condensed. 


THE   RECORDS   OF   GOLD-WASHING.  3I 

/■  1 98, 1 96, 206,  the  mining  operations  extending  over  an 
area  of  twelve  hundred  and  thirty-five  square  miles. 

Ararat  district  contains  large  deposits  of  the  upper 
and  newer  pliocene,  considered  to  be  of  marine  origin, 
but  no  gold  in  workable  quantities  has  been  found  in  any 
of  these  beds.  The  workable  placers  occur  in  the  lower 
newer  pliocene,  whose  origin  is  clearlv  a  result  of  fluvia- 
tile  agency.  A  fact  worthy  of  mention  is  that  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Ararat,  so  far  as  yet  explored,  not  a 
single  well-defined  quartz-vein  has  been  found  to  contain 
pay  gold. 

In  the  northern  portion  of  the  Ararat  fields  the  de- 
posits attain  a  depth  of  from  ninety  to  one  hundred  and 
fifty  feet.  In  the  Great  Western  mine  the  deposit,  com- 
posed of  older  pliocene  gravel-drift  resting  upon  disinte- 
grated granite,  has  been  mined  for  a  length  of  two  miles 
and  a  width  which  in  places  exceeds  twelve  hundred  feet. 
From  accumulations  of  saline  waters,  and  from  undula- 
tions both  horizontally  and  laterally  of  the  bed  rock,  it 
is  considered  that  "the  lead"  is  simply  a  depression  in  a 
former  sea- bottom. 

In  the  Ballarat  fields  there  are  four  clearly  defined 
epochs  of  gold-drift,  whose  relative  local  positions  are  in- 
dicated by  their  names  :  "  Oldest,"  "  Older,"  "  Recent," 
and  '*  Most  Recent."  The  "  Oldest  "  period  includes  a 
deposit  antecedent  to  the  time  at  which  the  channels  were 
eroded  to  their  present  depth.  The  "  Older  "  embraces 
the  deposit  intervening  between  the  lava-flows.  Deposits 
of  "Recent"  age  are  those  following  immediatelv  the 
uppermost  lava  flow.  "  Most  Recent  "  drifts  are  those  in 
most  recently  eroded  gullies.  There  are  three  great  lead 
systems  near  Ballarat,  called  the  "  Southern,"  "  Western," 
and  "  Eastern."  The  "  Southern  "  has  been  explored  ex- 
tensively ;  the  "  Western  "  is  looked  upon  by  some  as  the 
future  hope  of  Ballarat  in  alluvial  mining  ;  the  "  Eastern  " 
is  but  little  known. 

The  alluvial  deposits  in  Beechworth  district  have  been 


32  THE  RECORDS  OF  GO LU-W ASHING. 

derived  from  the  Silurian  strata,  not  from  the  granite. 
The  mining  operations  practised  are  simply  those  of 
ground-sluicing  on  a  large  scale.  Considerable  work  has 
been  done  on  the  placers  in  Dargo  district.  The  thick- 
ness of  the  gravel  is  from  thirty  to  forty  feet.  On 
Mitchell  River  the  gold- workings  are  confined  to  the 
creeks  and  the  older  alluvions  on  the  banks.  The  Wa- 
ranga  fields,  Sandhurst  district,  are  among  the  oldest  Vic- 
torian gold-fields,  and  have  been  worked  since  1853.  The 
most  important  of  the  workings  are  in  the  vicinity  of 
Rushworth  on  a  cement  deposit,  probably  of  the  older 
pliocene.  The  gravel  is  shallow,  the  deepest  shafts  being 
only  from  thirty-five  to  fifty -five  feet.  This  lead  has  yielded 
more  than  any  other  in  the  district.  Nuggety  Gully, 
Cemetery  Lead,  and  Coy  Diggings  are  also  placers  of  note. 

New  South  Wales. — The  auriferous  districts  of 
New  South  Wales  are  considered  the  richest  and  most 
extensive  in  x\ustralia.  The  gold-fields  extend,  with 
short  intervals,  the  entire  length  of  the  colony,  with  a 
breadth  of  two  hundred  miles.  Immense  tracts  in  the  in- 
terior still  remain  unprospected,  and  in  time  may  prove 
to  contain  valuable  gold-bearing  deposits.  Up  to  1871 
alluvial  washings  alone  were  carried  on,  gold- quartz  min- 
ing being  neglected.  At  this  period  sixteen  thousand 
miners  were  at  work.  The  product  from  185 1  to  1871 
inclusive  is  stated  by  Reid  to  have  been  ^^'26,45 7, 160. 
The  gold  regions  are  all  easy  of  access  and  are  within 
two  days'  journey  of  the  capital. 

In  Bathurst,  Tambaroora,  Turon,  Lachlan,  Mudgee, 
Southern,  Peel,  and  Uralla  districts  water  is  scarce,  and 
the  discoveries  of  gold  at  Temora,  Montreal,  and  Mount 
Browne  have  attracted  a  large  number  of  miners  from 
these  places.  Water  is  scarce  at  Temora  also,  but  for- 
tunately a  large  amount  of  very  coarse  gold  has  been 
found.  The  Montreal  placers  are  near  the  sea-coast.  The 
deposits  are  said  to  occur  in  two  terraces,  and  give  evi- 
dence of  having  been  washed  back  by  the  sea. 


THE    RECORDS    OF    GOLD-WASHING.  33 

In  1880,  of  the  13,430  gold-miners  in  the  colony  of  New 
South  Wales  11,403  were  engaged  in  alluvial  mining. 

The  Barrington  field,  on  Back  Creek,  is  about  ten 
miles  from  the  town  of  Gloucester.  The  principal  gold 
deposits  occur  amid  steep  ranges,  covered  with  thick 
forests  and  dense  undergrowth.  The  creek  has  been 
worked  for  gold,  but  the  results,  though  profitable,  have 
not  been  remarkable.  The  water-supply  is  very  uncer- 
tain, and  in  summer  the  creek  ceases  to  flow. 

The  Kiandra  gold  field,  on  the  table-land  of  Maneero, 
is  situated  about  five  thousand  feet  above  sea-level,  close 
to  the  highest  mountains  in  the  colony,  around  which  are 
extensive  deposits  of  auriferous  gravel.  Near  Mount 
Table-Top  the  alluvions  have  been  covered  with  basalt, 
and  up  to  the  present  time  this  main  deposit  has  been 
worked  only  to  a  limited  extent. 

The  chief  localities  in  which  gold-mining  has  been 
carried  on  are  those  of  Nine-Mile  Diggings,  New  Chum 
Hill  Diggings,  Scotchman's  Tunnel  Claim,  Bullock-Head 
'^reek,  and  the  Eucumbene  River ;  also  Township  Hill- 
Diggings,  Eight-Mile  Diggings,  and  Fifteen-Mile  Dig- 
gings. Recent  survey's  show  that  water  can  be  brought 
on  certain  of  the  Kiandra  diggings,  and  here  h}draulic 
mining  is  possible  on  a  ver}-  limited  scale.  The  rich 
placers  developed  by  the  sluicing  operations  toward 
Mount  Table-Top  have  been  compared  by  some  writers 
to  the  gravel  deposits  near  Placerville,  California.  Lach- 
lan  district  was  partially  developed  in  the  rush  of  the  first 
mining  excitement,  and  it  is  believed  that  only  an  insig- 
nificant proportion  of  the  ancient  river  deposits  was 
worked  by  the  early  miners. 

Mount  Werong  is  the  site  of  one  of  the  recent  discov- 
eries. The  auriferous  alluvion  is  said  to  be  widely  scat- 
tered. The  gold  has  a  water-worn  appearance,  and  it  is 
supposed  that  an  old  channel  or  lead  formerly  existed 
here.     But  as  3'et  the  country  is  only  partially  explored. 

The  Tallawang  field  contains  one  of  the  most  ancient 


34  THE    RECORDS    OF   GOLD-WASHING 

auriferous  alluvial  deposits  in  the  world ;  the  gold  occurs 
in  the  tertiar)'  alluvial  deposits,  and  in  conglomerates  in 
the  coal  measures  the  precious  metal  has  also  been  lound 
in  paying  quantities.  xVt  Clough's  Gully  the  conglome- 
rate is  being  worked  and  yields  from  i  to  15  penny- 
weights per  ton,  and  nuggets  of  5  ounces  are  occasionally 
lound. 

Queensland. — The  colony  of  Queensland  lies  to  the 
north  of  New  South  Wales.  Here  thirty-one  hundred 
square  miles  of  auriferous  alluvial  and  quartz  ground 
were  worked  upon  in  1876.  The  gold-fields  occur  on 
both  sides  of  the  main  dividing  range  which  separates  the 
eastern  and  western  waters,  and  on  the  spurs  of  the  range 
which  forms  the  water-shed  to  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria. 

Charter's  Towers  fields  are  situated  about  the  centre 
of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  colony.  There  are  several 
small  alluvial  deposits,  but  the  principal  industry  is  that 
of  gold-quartz  mining. 

In  the  Gympie  district  extensive  quartz-mining  is 
carried  on,  and  some  alluvial  gold  has  been  found  in 
the  Marengo  gullies. 

Gold  quartz  is  mined  in  the  Normanby  region,  but 
alluvial  gold  is  sparsely  distributed,  the  deposits  not  pay- 
ing the  cost  of  labor. 

South  Australia. — In  South  Australia  gold  is  found 
in  nearly  every  part  of  the  colony,  but  the  deposits  are 
of  very  limited  size.  The  bed  of  the  river  Torrens  has 
yielded  small  quantities.  The  deposits  of  Barossa  are 
said  to  resemble  geologically  and  topographicall}'  Ben- 
digo  and  other  Victorian  fields  where  the  basaltic  lava  is 
absent.  The  principal  deposit  is  probably  of  older  plio- 
cene age.  The  main  lead  in  Spike's  Gully  shows  a  drift 
varying  from  twenty  to  a  hundred  feet  in  depth.  In  this 
drift,  which  consists  of  qviartz  pebbles,  boulders,  and 
ferruginous  conglomerate,  the  gold  is  water- Avorn.  The 
topography  of  the  country  is  favorable  for  the  construc- 
tion of  reservoirs  at  small  expense,  and  sluicing  could  be 


THE   RECORDS   OF   GOLD-WASHING.  35 

introduced  without  difficulty.  The  Echunga  fields  were 
discovered  in  1852,  but  gave  employment  to  a  small  num- 
ber of  gravel-miners  only.  Cement-crushing  has  been 
carried  on  in  this  district,  but  with  little  success.  The 
Ulooloo  gold-field  contains  some  auriferous  deposits  com- 
posed of  clay,  sand,  and  shingle,  forming  banks  of  from 
six  to  twenty  feet  along  the  Ulooloo  Creek.  Water, 
however,  is  here  very  scarce. 

In  the  northern  territory,  which  extends  from  the  Sta- 
pleton  to  the  Driffield  rivers,  the  auriferous  deposits 
have  been  explored  for  a  distance  of  about  one  hundred 
miles  in  length  by  twenty  miles  in  width.  There  are  no 
drift  deposits.  The  alluvial  gold  occurs  in  small  gullies 
and  ravines,  and  occasional  rich  pockets  are  found. 

New  Zealand. — Gold  was  discovered  in  New  Zea- 
land in  1842.  The  alluvial  deposits  occur  chiefly  in  the 
South  Island,  in  the  districts  of  Otago,  Westland,  and 
Nelson,  where  mining  operations  are  carried  on  over  an 
area  of  almost  twenty  thousand  square  miles.  The  de- 
tritus is  found  in  the  beds  of  the  rivers,  in  large  deposits 
of  gravel  from  three  hundred  to  five  hundred  feet  deep, 
and  in  the  sands  along  the  sea-shore.  The  gold-drifts  in 
Otago  rest  on  the  denuded  surface  of  the  parent  rock, 
while  in  the  Westland  district  they  lie  on  tertiary  rocks 
of  marine  origin.  Fullv  two-thirds  of  the  gold  returned 
from  this  country  is  obtained  from  alluvial  mining.  The 
extent  to  which  work  is  carried  on  may  be  judged  from 
the  fact  that  the  miners  have  constructed  over  five 
thousand  miles  of  water-races,  with  attendant  tail-races 
and  dams,  at  a  cost  approximating  i^300,ooo ;  this  is  in- 
dependent of  the  government  water-races  and  dams,  which 
have  cost  ^^450.000. 

Ground-sluicing  is  practised,  and  in  some  instances 
hydraulic  mining  has  been  introduced  with  heads  of  water 
from  eighty  to  one  hundred  feet.  The  government  has  a 
tunnel  eleven  feet  b}'  seven  feet,  five  thousand  seven  hun- 
dred and  forty-four  feet  long,  in  course  of  construction. 


36  THE   RECORDS   OF   GOLD-WASHING. 

having  already  built  the  open  Sludge-channel,  eight  miles 
long,  at  Naseby.  Besides  these  several  tunnels  have  been 
built  bv  private  individuals. 

At  Gabriel  Gully,  Tuapeka,  where  the  grade  is  very 
light,  the  hydraulic  elevator  is  said  to  be  working  succes- 
fullv  ;  and  in  the  river  Clutha  dredging  machines  are  at 
work  on  the  auriferous  deposits.  North  of  Charleston, 
on  the  coast-line,  the  beach  sands  which  contain  gold  are 
worked  by  a  colony  of  Shetlanders. 

Extensive  sluicing  operations  are  carried  on  along  the 
banks  of  the  Molyneux,  Kawarau,  and  Shotover  rivers. 
At  Tinkers  and  Drybread  Diggings  forty  sluice-heads  of 
water,  with  one  hundred  and  thirty  feet  head,  conducted 
through  forty-five  hundred  feet  of  iron  piping,  are  used 
to  hydraulic  the  gravel.  The  depth  of  the  deposits  on 
the  so-called  Maori  bottom  approximates  thirty  feet. 
The  resources  of  the  province  in  auriferous  drift  are 
very  great.  Ulrich  considers  part  of  the  old  Clutha  Lake 
basin  where  Bendigo  Creek  enters,  and  along  the  foot  of 
the  range  upon  which  Bendigo  reef  occurs,  as  especially 
worthy  of  the  attention  of  the  drift-miner.  Miller's  Flat, 
between  Arrow  and  Queenstown,  a  supposed  old  river- 
channel,  is  also  considered  rich. 

The  Thames  field,  on  the  east  side  of  the  Hauraki 
Gulf,  is  a  narrow  strip  of  land  twenty-five  miles  long  and 
from  two  to  four  miles  wide.  The  gold  in  this  district  is 
obtained  chiefly  from  quartz  reefs.  In  Tapu  district  gold 
is  found  in  considerable  quantities  in  the  decomposed  soil 
on  the  slopes  of  the  hills.  It  is  usually  flaky  and  not  at  all 
water-worn. 

In  Westland  district  the  mines  are  classed  as  cement 
and  alluvial  workings.  The  cement  is  from  one  to  six 
feet  in  thickness,  and  consists  of  quartz  gravels  which  are 
found  in  connection  with  the  coal  series.  The  gold  oc- 
curs in  the  lower  portion  of  these  beds.  Alluvial  work- 
ings are  met  with  in  all  gullies  cut  in  the  auriferous 
series,    but   the   gold   is   generally    coarse.     In   the   con- 


THE    RECORDS   OF   GOLD-WASHING.  37 

glomerate  formation  the  gold  is  caught  in  the  brown 
sandstone  bottom  over  which  the  conglomerate  lies. 

In  the  glacial  drifts  extensive  claims  have  been  worked 
and  large  quantities  of  gold  have  been  obtained.  These 
deposits  are  interesting,  inasmuch  as  they  derive  their 
gold,  in  all  probability,  from  the  slates  of  which  the  glacial 
drifts  are  composed. 

The  black-sand  beaches  are  composed  of  crystals  of 
magnetic  iron  ore,  which  are  found  disseminated  through 
the  chloritic  schist.  The  gold  which  is  associated  with 
the  sand  is  supposed  to  have  been  derived  from  the 
Maitai  slates,  brought  down  in  immense  quantities  by 
glaciers.  This  district  includes  the  gold-fields  of  Waka- 
marina,  Queen  Charlotte  Sound,  and  Wairau  valley. 

Extensive  sluicing  is  going  on  at  present  in  Waka- 
marina  district.  The  ground  is  spotted  and  the  gold  is 
distributed  unevenly.  The  Queen  Chai-lotte  Sound  held 
is  a  quartz-mining  district.  The  Wairau  valley  is  an  al- 
luvial deposit,  and  is  a  comparatively  new  district.  Gold 
occurs  in  almost  all  the  gullies  on  the  north  bank  of  the 
Wairau  River.  The  gullies  are  all  very  narrow.  Some 
of  the  claims  have  proved  very  rich. 

Canada. — In  Canada  gold  is  derived  from  the  de- 
gradation of  the  upper  Silurian  and  Devonian  rocks. 
The  Geological  Commission,  as  early  as  1852,  determined 
the  existence  of  auriferous  alluvions  extending  over  an 
area  of  more  than  ten  thousand  square  miles.  The  prin- 
cipal deposits  explored  have  been  in  the  province  of 
Quebec  and  in  Nova  Scotia.  As  notable  may  be  men- 
tioned the  workings  along  the  Chaudiere  River  and  its 
tributaries,  the  Du  Loup  and  the  Gilbert.  Extensive 
deposits  occur  also  to  the  southeast  of  the  Notre  Dame 
Mountains. 

Small  local  deposits  of  high  value  have  been  worked, 
giving  rise  to  great  expectations,  but  as  a  whole  the  re- 
sults have  been  unsatisfactor3^ 

British  Columbia.— In  British  Columbia  gold  was 


38  THE   RECORDS   OF   GOLD-WASHING. 

discovered  in  1858011  the  Frazer  River,  above  New  West- 
minster, causing  a  great  excitement  and  a  "  rush  "  of  pros- 
pectors. San  Francisco  was  nearly  depopulated  by  the 
exodus,  and  it  is  estimated  that  one-sixth  of  the  voters  of 
California  moved  to  the  new  placers.  Gold  was  traced 
three  hundred  miles  up  the  river  to  Cariboo.  On  the 
Peace  River,  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles  still  further 
north,  gold  was  found.  In  1872  discoveries  in  Cassiar 
district,  eight  hundred  miles  north  of  Victoria,  caused 
the  "  Stickeen  River  rush."  The  Frazer  River  deposits 
were  remunerative  only  to  a  limited  extent  and  were 
soon  worked  out.  In  all  the  localities  in  this  country 
the  workings  have  been  principally  confined  to  shallow 
placers  and  river-bars,  which  are  soon  exhausted ;  but 
at  Cariboo  there  are  channels  beneath  the  beds  of  the 
present  water-courses.  Shafts  are  sunk  from  the  sur- 
face to  the  auriferous  channels  through  a  covering  of 
clav  and  gravel.  The  bed  of  the  ancient  stream,  when 
reached,  is  followed  by  drifts.  While  handsome  returns 
have  been  occasionally  made  (in  1861  nearly  a  million  of 
dollars  were  extracted),  the  expenses  of  working,  there 
being  much  water  to  contend  with,  are  so  large  that  the 
operations  have  almost  entirel}^  ceased.  In  the  more 
northerly  districts  the  climate  presents  great  obstacles 
and  work  can  be  carried  on  onlj-  during  a  few  months  of 
the  3"ear. 

In  Vancouver  Island,  in  the  Leech  River  district,  gold 
has  been  found  in  a  small  area  some  twenty  miles  from 
Victoria. 

Lock  *  estimates  that  from  1858  to  1880  (twent3'-two 
and  a  half  years)  gold  of  the  value  of  $45,140,889  has  been 
extracted  from  (principally)  the  alluvions  of  British  Co- 
lumbia. 

United  States  of  America. — Outside  of  California 
(which  will  be  treated  in  the  following  chapter),  up  to  the 
present  time,  the  alluvial  deposits  worked  have  been  prin- 

*  "  Gold,"  p.  38. 


THE   RECORDS   OF   GOLD-WASHING.  39 

cipally  shallow,  and  continued  profitable  development  on 
a  large  scale  is  unknown. 

New  EnglaiMl. — Gold  has  been  found  in  Vermont 
and  New  Hampshire,  and  alluvial  deposits  of  limited  ex- 
tent have  been  exploited  along  the  Green  Mountains.  But 
the  production  has  been  comparatively  insignificant. 

Virginia.^AUuvial  gold  has  been  reported  as  found 
in  Virginia  in  Montgomery  and  Floyd  counties,  along 
Brush  Creek.  In  Goochland  County  the  hydraulic  pro- 
cess was  tried  in  1877. 

North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia. — 
The  Appalachian  gold-fields  extend  through  the  States  of 
North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and  Georgia.  Gold  was 
first  discovered  in  1799,  and  in  1829  the  discovery  of  pla- 
cers caused  a  great  excitement.  Two  principal  belts  are 
known  in  North  Carolina,  one  extending  through  Guilford, 
Davidson,  Rowan,  Cabarrus,  and  Mecklenburg  counties ; 
another  through  McDowell,  Burke,  and  Rutherford  coun- 
ties ;  the  latter  has  been  traced  mto  northern  Georgia, 
where  it  forms  the  gold  region  in  the  vicinit}-  of  Dahlo- 
nega.  The  latter  is  the  more  western  and  more  deviated, 
and  contains  richer  placers. 

The  formation  of  these  gold  deposits  has  been  attri- 
buted rather  to  the  action  of  atmospheric  influence  than 
to  deposition  by  large  streams.  The  best  placers  were 
exhausted  at  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  gold  in  Cali- 
fornia, and  more  recent  attempts  to  work  them  on  a  large 
scale  and  by  the  hydraulic  process  have  not  met  with 
success. 

Idaho. — Gold  was  first  discovered  in  paying  quan- 
tities near  Pearce  City,  Idaho,  in  18^0.  The  Territory 
of  Idaho,  then  a  part  of  Washington  Tcrritorv,  was 
organized  in  1862.  The  principal  placers  were  those  in 
the  Boise  basin,  which  first  attracted  the  attention  of 
miners  in  1862,  and  on  the  Snake  and  Salmon  Rivers.  In 
1865  the  production  of  gold,  in  the  Territorv  amounted 
to  $8,023,680,  but  the  yield  gradually  decreased  from  that 


40  THE   RECORDS   OF   GOLD-WASHING. 

year,  and  the  placers  produced  in  1880  only  $879,644. 
The  Boise  basin  has  been  nearly  exhausted,  and  the  lower 
Snake  River  bars,  which  are  quite  limited  in  extent,  are 
practically  deserted.  Above  Fort  Hall  work  is  still  go- 
ing-  on.  Salmon  River  was  abandoned  to  Chinese  labor 
in  1870. 

Montaiiii. — Gold  was  found  on  Gold  Creek,  in  Deer 
Lodge  County,  Montana,  in  1852,  but  the  developments 
did  not  attract  much  attention  until  1862,  when  a  rush 
of  immigration  took  place.  The  yield  of  the  district  up 
to  1870  is  estimated  at  $24,000,000.  Extensive  works  are 
still  being  carried  on  in  this  county.  In  Lewis  and  Clarke 
County  the  gulches  and  foothills  are  known  to  be  aurife- 
rous to  a  great  extent;  they  have  3-ielded  and  are  still 
3'ielding  large  amounts  of  the  precious  metal.  Alder 
Gulch,  in  Madison  County,  was  discovered  in  June,  1863, 
and  in  three  years  is  said  to  have  produced  $30,000,000 
(Raymond's  "Report,"  1870).  Work  is  prosecuted  still 
in  this  county  and  also  in  Meagher  County. 

Montana  has  contained  some  of  the  richest  deposits 
known.  Most  of  these  have  been  worked  as  shallow  pla- 
cers, and  in  many  of  the  locations  much  trouble  has  been 
experienced  in  obtaining  water. 

New  Mexico. — Gold-placers  are  known  to  exist  in 
New  Mexico  along  the  Rio  Grande,  from  the  Colorado 
line  to  the  placers  some  forty  miles  south  of  Santa  Fe, 
and  also  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  Territory  in  the 
counties  of  Dona  Ana  and  Grant.  The  latter  have  not 
been  opened  up  to  any  great  extent,  although  reports  of 
exceedingl}^  rich  placers  have  long  been  current.  The  de- 
posits along  the  Rio  Grande  have  been  described  by  Ray- 
mond ("Mineral  Resources,  1874")  and  Prof.  Silliman 
("  The  Rio  Grande  Gold-Gravels  "),  who  are  authorities 
for  the  following  statements. 

The  auriferous  gravels  extend  southerly  from  the  Colo- 
rado line  along  the  Rio  Grande  valley  some  one  hundred 
Ind  fifty  miles,  over  a  width  of  about  forty  miles,  between 


THE   RECORDS   OF   GOLD-WASHING.  4I 

the  Sangre  de  Cristo  Mountains  on  the  east  and  the  Con- 
tinental Divide  on  the  west.  The  southern  portion,  say 
seventy-five  miles  ni  lineal  (northerly  and  southerly)  ex- 
tent, has  been  extensively  denuded.  The  more  northerly 
area  has  been  eroded  more  or  less,  and  contains  accumu- 
lations of  gravel,  varying  from  fifty  to  six  hundred  feet 
in  depth.  Overflows  of  volcanic  rocks  cover  and  protect 
or  interstratify  the  gravels  in  very  many  instances.  The 
gravel  consists  chiefly  of  quartz  and  quartzite,  and,  to  a 
much  less  extent,  of  syenite,  porphyry,  granite,  gneiss,  and 
slate  debris,  and  evidently  has  been  carried  to  its  present 
location  from  only  a  short  distance,  probably  from  the 
Archaean  rocks  ot  the  Sangre  de  Cristo  and  other  souther- 
ly ranges  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  gold  is  said  to  be 
diffused  through  the  alluvions  with  great  uniformity. 

South  of  Santa  Fe  large  Mexican  grants  contain  ex- 
tensive deposits  of  gravel,  where  gold  was  discovered  in 
1842,  and  whence  in  succeeding  years  large  amounts  of 
the  precious  metal  are  said  to  have  been  extracted.  Ame- 
rican companies  have  been  recently  formed  to  work  all 
these  deposits  along  the  Rio  Grande,  but  thus  far  the  ob- 
stacles to  success  seem  to  have  been  very  great. 

Other  States  and  Territories. — In  various  other 
States  and  Territories,  as  Colorado  and  Dakota,  placer- 
mining  has  been  carried  on  by  small  companies  on  a  limit- 
ed scale. 


CHAPTER  II. 

HISTORY  AND   DEVELOPMENT  OF  PLACER-MINING  IN 
CALIFORNIA. 

From  the  auriferous  deposits  of  the  State  of  California 
$1,100,000,000  have  been  extracted  during  the  last  thirty- 
five  3-ears.* 

The  magnitude  of  the  mining  operations  required  to 
produce  this  enormous  yield  is  but  little  known  to  the 
general  public.  The  continuous  flow  of  gold  bullion  has, 
however,  made  the  State  famous  and  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  political  economists  everywhere. 

First  Mention  of  California. — The  first  mention 
of  the  name  "California"  occurs  in  connection  with  a 
supposed  great  island  where  gold  and  precious  stones 
were  found  in  abundance,  described  in  a  romance  called 
"  Las  Sergus  de  Esplandian,"  published  in  Spam  a.d.  15 10. 
The  followers  of  Cortez  had  chimerical  ideas  of  some 
hidden  El  Dorado,  and,  strange  to  say,  they  applied  the 
name  California  to  that  unknown  country  north  of  Mexico 
with  which  they  associated  the  notion  of  a  region  of  fabu- 
lous wealth. 

Discovery  of  Lower  California. — The  first  expe- 
dition sent  out  by  Cortez,  in  1534,  discovered  what  is  now 
called  Lower  California.  According  to  Father  Venegas, 
this  expedition,  numbering  some  seven  hundred  souls,  was 
fitted  out  at  the  port  of  Tehuantepfec  in  the  year  1537,  and 
sailed  north  to  the  head  of  the  gulf  of  California,  but 
never  reached  the  line  which  marks  the  southern  boun- 
dary of  the  State  of  California. 

Contemporaneously  with  the  departure  of  this  party 
"  four  persons,  named  Alvarez    Nunez,  Cabeza  de  Vaca, 

*  Up  to  1883.     See  Appendix  A. 


HISTORY   AND    DEVELOPMENT   OF   PLACER-MINING.     43 

Castillo,  and  Dormentes,  with  a  negro  named  Estevancio," 
arrived  at  Culiacan,  on  the  gulf  of  California,  from  the 
peninsula  of  Florida.  These  were  the  sole  survivors  of 
the  three  hundred  Spaniards  who  in  1527  landed  with 
Pamtilo  Narvaez  on  the  coast  of  Florida  with  the  inten- 
tion of  conquering  that  ctjuntrv-  Nunez  subsequently 
conducted  the  expedition  which  discovered  the  Rio  de  la 
Plata  and  effected  the  hrst  conquest  of  Paraguay. 

Early  Explorations — In  1542  Mendoza,  Viceroy  of 
Mexico,  sent  Rodriguez  Cabrillo,  a  Portuguese,  to  sur- 
vey the  west  coast  of  California.  He  explored  the  coist, 
naming  the  numerous  headlands,  the  most  northerly  of 
which,  in  lat.  40°  N.,  he  called  Cape  Mendocino.  Thence 
he  proceeded  further  north  to  lat.  44°,  which  he  reached 
March  10,  1543. 

In  1578  Sir  Francis  Drake  entered  the  Pacific  and 
sailed  north  as  high  as  lat.  48°.  According  to  Hakluyt's 
account  of  the  voyage,  Drake  spent  five  weeks  in  June 
and  July,  1579,  in  a  bay  near  lat.  38°  N. 

First  Mention  of  Gold. — The  narrative  says : 
"  Our  General  called  this  country  New  Albion.  .  .  . 
There  is  no  part  of  the  earth  here  to  be  taken  up  where- 
in there  is  not  a  reasonable  quantitie  of  gold  and  silver." 
It  is  difficult  to  reconcile  this  statement  with  the  facts  as 
known  at  present,  since  in  lat.  38°  N.  neither  gold  nor 
silver  exists  in  "  reasonable  quantitie  "  near  the  ocean. 
This  is,  however,  remarkable  as  the  first  mention  of  gold 
in  California  proper. 

In  1602  the  Count  de  Monte  Rev,  Vicero}'  of  New 
Spain,  by  order  of  the  king,  sent  Sebastian  Viscayno 
on  an  exploring  expedition.  He  sailed  from  Acapulco, 
May  5,  1602,  with  two  vessels  and  a  tender,  with  Admi- 
ral Gomez  in  command.  The  expedition,  composed  of  a 
large  number  of  men,  was  fully  equipped  for  one  year's 
voyage.  Three  barefooted  Carmelites  accompanied  the 
party,  and  the  several  departments  were  entrusted  to  dis- 
tinguished officers,  volunteers  from  Brittan}-. 


44  HISTORY   AND   DEVELOPMENT 

After  a  struggle  with  northwest  winds,  on  November 
10,  1602,  the  fleet  entered  the  harbor  of  San  Diego* 
and,  having  spent  a  few  days  there,  the  expedition  again 
sailed  north.  December  16,  1602,  anchor  was  cast  in 
Monterey  Bay,  which  was  named  in  honor  of  the  viceroy. 
January  3,  1603,  the  fleet  weighed  anchor,  and  a  period  of 
one  hundred  and  sixty-six  years  elapsed  before  this  bay 
was  revisited.  January  12  the  fleet  passed  the  bay  of 
San  Francisco  and  anchored  behind  a  point  of  land  called 
"La  Punta  de  los  Reyes,"  but  did  not  enter  San  Fran- 
cisco harbor.  The  voyage  was  subsequently  continued 
as  far  as  lat.  43°  N.,  from  which  point  the  fleet  returned 
to  Acapulco. 

First  Mission  establislied  in  Lower  California. 
— In  1697  the  first  permanent  mission  was  established  by 
the  Jesuits  at  Loreto,  Lower  CaUfornia.  "  These  people," 
says  the  historian,  "  with  patient  art  and  devoted  zeal, 
accomplished  that  which  had  defied  the  energy  of  Cortez 
and  baffled  the  efforts  of  the  Spanish  monarchy  for  gene- 
rations a.^ter  wards." 

First  Mission  in  Upper  California. — In  1769  the 
Jesuits  were  banished  from  Lower  California.  On  the 
9th  day  of  January,  1769,  an  expedition  set  sail  from  La 
Paz,  in  Lower  California,  to  rediscover  San  Diego  and 
Monterev.  The  vessels  stopped  at  Cape  St.  Lucas,  and 
left  that  point  February  15  of  the  same  year.  On  the 
1st  of  July,  1769,  a  land  expedition  which  had  started 
shortly  after  the  vessels  had  set  sail  from  Cape  St.  Lucas, 
under  the  immediate  charge  of  Padre  Junipero  Serra, 
reached  San  "Hiego  and  established  the  first  Franciscan 
mission  in  Upper  California. 

Notwithstanding  the  facts  revealed  by  the  many  ex- 
peditions, the  geographers  of  that  day  still  persisted 
m  describing  California  as  an  island  extending  from 
Cape   St.   Lucas,   at   the   tropic   of   Cancer,   to   lat.   45° 

*  An  interesting  account  of  this  voyage  is  given  by  E.  Randolph,  Esq.,  "  Memoirs  of  the 
Society  of  California  Pioneers." 


OF   PLACER-MINIXG   IX   CALIFORNIA. 


45 


N.,*  and  it  was  not  until  Father  Begert's  map  was  pub- 
lished at  Maiheim,  in  1771,  that  California  was  relieved 
of  its  insulai   character. 

Early  Discoveries  of  Placers.— At  different  times 
between  1775  and  1828  small  deposits  of  placer  gold  were 
found  by  Mexicans  near  the  Colorado  River.  In  1802  a 
mineral  vein  supposed  to  contain  silver  was  found  at 
Olizal,  in  the  district  of  Monterey.  In  1828  a  small  gold 
placer  was  discovered  at  San  Isidro,  in  what  is  now  known 
as  San  Diego  County. 

Forbes,  in  his  history  of  California,  in  1835,  says: 
"  No  minerals  of  particular  importance  have  yet  been 
found  in  Upper  California,  nor  any  appearance  of  metals." 

In  1838  the  placers  of  San  Francisquito,  forty-five  miles 
northwest  from  Los  Angeles,  were  discovered.  These 
deposits  were  neither  rich  nor  extensive,  but  were  worked 
steadily  for  twenty  years. 

In  1 841  Wilkes'  exploring  expedition  visited  the  coast, 
James  D.  Dana,  mineralogist,  accompanving  the  partv. 
In  the  following  year,  in  his  work  on  mineralogy,  Dana 
mentions  that  gold  was  found  in  the  Sacramento  valley, 
and  that  rocks  ''  similar  to  those  of  the  auriferous  forma- 
tions "  were  observed  in  southern  Oreofon. 

May  4,  1846,  Thomas  O.  Larkin,  United  States  Consul 
at  Monterey,  said,  in  an  official  letter  to  James  Buchanan. 
Esq.,  then  Secretary  of  State  :  "  There  is  no  doubt  that 
gold,  silver,  quicksilver,  copper,  lead,  sulphur,  and  coal 
mines  are  to  be  found  all  over  California,  and  it  is  doubt- 
ful vvhether,  under  their  present  owners,  thev  will  ever  be 
worked." 

On  the  7th  of  July,  1846;  the  American  flag  was  hoisted 
at  Monterey  and  the  country  taken  possession  of  bv  the 
United  States. 

*  See  Ogilvy's  "America:  being  the  latest  and  most  accurate  Account  of  the  Xew 
World,"  published  in  London  in  1671.  California  is  there  laid  down  as  an  island,  extending 
fiom  Cape  St.  Lucas  to  lat.  45°  N.  See  map  by  Capt.  Shelvocke.  R.N.,  "Voyage  around 
the  World  by  way  of  the  South  Sea,"  published  in  London  in  1726.  See  map  published  in 
Venice  in  1546,  Independent  Order  of  Odd  Fellows'  Hall,  San  Francisco. 


46  HISTORY   AND   DEVELOPMENT 

Marshall  discovers  Gold  at  Coloma. — January 
19,  1848,  James  W.  Marshall,  while  engaged  in  digging 
a  race  for  a  saw-mill  at  Coloma  (thirt3'-tive  miles  east 
from  Sutter's  Fort),  found  some  pieces  of  yellow  metal 
which  he  and  the  half-dozen  men  working  with  him  at 
the  mill  supposed  to  be  gold.  "  He  felt  confident  that  he 
had  made  a  discover)'  of  great  importance,  but  he  knew 
nothing  of  either  chemistry  or  gold-mining,  and  he  could 
not  pnjve  the  nature  of  the  metal  or  tell  how  to  obtain  it 
in  paving  quantities.  ...  So  Marshall's  collection  of 
specimens  continued  to  accumulate,  and  his  associates 
began  to  think  there  might  be  something  in  his  gold-mine 
after  all."* 

In  the  middle  of  February,  Bennett,  one  of  the  party 
employed  at  the  mill,  went  to  San  Francisco  and  returned 
with  Isaac  Humphreys,  a  man  who  had  washed  gold  in 
Georgia,  and  who,  after  a  few  hours'  work,  declared  the 
mines  to  be  richer  than  those  of  his  own  State.  By 
means  of  a  rocker  he  obtained  daily  about  one  ounce  of 
gold,  and  soon  all  the  hands  of  the  mill  were  rocking  for 
the  precious  metal. 

The  record  of  the  discoverv  of  gold,  as  related  by 
Parsons  in  his  biography  of  Marshall,  is  somewhat  dif- 
ferent from  that  published  by  Browne,  and  gives  to  Mar- 
shall alone  the  credit  of  the  discovery. 

Other  Gold  Discoveries. — Pierson  B.  Redding, 
the  owner  of  a  large  ranch  at  the  head  of  the  Sacramento 
vallev,  visited  the  mining  works  at  Coloma,  and  imme- 
diately resolved  to  commence  washing  on  his  own  pro- 
perty, which  he  thought  was  in  a  similar  formation,  and 
in  a  few  weeks  he  had  begun  mining  on  a  bar  on  Clear 
Creek,  nearh^  two  hundred  miles  northwest  from  Coloma. 
This  example  was  followed  by  John  Bidwell,  who,  having 
seen  Sutter's  works,  commenced  prospecting  on  the  bars 
of  the  Feather  River,  seventy-five  miles  northwest  from 
Coloma. 

*  See  "  Reports  upon  the  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States,"  by  J.  Ross  Browne,  1867. 


OF   PLACER-MINING   IN   CALIFORNIA.  47 

In  March,  1848,  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe-Hidalgo  was 
made,  and  Mexico  ceded  California  to  the  United  States. 
By  the  end  of  the  same  year  mines  were  opened  at  far- 
distant  points.  Miners  were  at  work  in  every  large 
stream  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  from 
Feather  River  to  the  Tuolumne,  a  distance  of  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  miles. 

First  Pviblicatioii  of  Gold  Discoveries. — The 
first  printed  notice  of  the  discovery  of  gold  appeared  in 
the  Calif orniaii  (?),  a  newspaper  published  in  San  Fran- 
cisco, on  March  15,  1848.  On  May  29  the  same  paper 
announced  that  its  publication  would  bt>  suspended,  the 
whole  population  having  betaken  itself  to  the  mines. 

In  1849  the  placers  of  Trinity  and  Mariposa  were 
opened,  Xx.  this  period  hired  men  were  the  exception, 
every  man  working  for  himself,  and  rocker  claims  were 
very  abundant.  In  1850  the  deposits  of  Klamath  and 
Scott's  Valley  were  discovered. 

First  Attempt  to  build  Ditches. — The  chief  want 
of  the  placer-miner  being  water,  the  first  noteworthy 
attempt  at  ditch-building  was  made  in  March,  1850,  at 
Coyote  Hill,  Nevada  County. 

In  the  spring  of  the  same  year  gold  was  reported  as 
lying  in  heaps  on  the  banks  of  Gold  Lake,  near  Downie- 
ville.  This  caused  a  tremendous  excitement  and  a  rush 
of  miners  to  that  locality.  In  a  few  weeks  thousands  re- 
turned from  the  lake  poorer  than  when  they  started. 

On  September  9,  1850,  California  was  admitted  into 
the  Union  as  a  State.  The  number  of  persons  then  en- 
gaged in  mining  was  estimated  at  fifty  thousand.  River- 
mining  at  this  period  occupied  a  prominent  place  in  the 
industries  of  the  State. 

First  Use  of  the  "Long-  Tom." — The  winter  of 
1849-50  was  very  stormy  and  comparatively  little  work 
was  done  in  the  rivers  or  creeks,  but  in  the  spring  of  1850 
mining  was  resumed  on  those  bars  which  were  subject  to 
overflow  only  at  extreme  high  water.     The  pick,  shovel. 


48  HISTORY   AND   DEVELOPMENT 

rocker,  and  wheelbarrow  were  the  only  implements  then 
in  use.  Towards  the  end  of  1850  the  "Long  Tom"  was 
introduced. 

Discovery  of  Gold-Quartz  Veins. — Extensive  pros- 
pecting at  this  period  for  the  sources  of  these  gravel  de- 
posits led  to  the  discover}^  of  gold-quartz  veins,  the  most 
noted  of  which  was  the  Allison  Ranch  mine  in  Nevada 
County.     In  1851  came  the  rush  to  Gold  Bluff,  lat.  41°  N. 

The  work  on  dry  bars  gradually  led  to  mining  the 
river  bottoms,  which  was  first  undertaken  b}'  means  of 
wing  dams.  Later  the  more  venturous  miners  turned 
entire  streams  from  their  courses  by  means  of  flumes  or 
ditches. 

First  Working  of  Deep  Deposits. — Simultane- 
ously the  miners  "  pushed  back  "  from  the  shallow  placers 
to  deep  deposits  which  were  worked  b)^  means  of  the  tom, 
and  with  the  advent  of  sluices  in  1851  the  low  hill  gravels 
were  attacked  and  successfully  mined.  Coincident  with 
the  introduction  of  the  sluice  and  washing  of  hill  gravels 
came  the  employment  of  hired  men  in  placer  diggings. 

Sluicing. — The  deep  deposits  of  auriferous  gravel 
were  relatively  poorer  than  the  shallow  placers,  and  open 
cuts,  preparatory  to  sluicing,  were  requisite ;  a  large  sup- 
ply of  water  was  a  sine  qua  non,  ditches  became  a  neces- 
sit)%  labor  was  in  demand,  but  without  capital  nothing 
could  be  accomplished. 

The  sluice  revolutionized  gold-washing.  With  the  ex- 
haustion of  the  surface  diggings  the  river  towns  fell  into 
decay,  and  those  mountain  districts  where  the  deep  auri- 
ferous beds  were  found  soon  became  the  prosperous  coun- 
ties of  the  State. 

First  Use  of  the  Hydraulic  Method. — It  was 
evident  that  the  sluices  ran  dirt  faster  than  the  shovellers 
could  supply  it ;  labor  was  expensive — men  receiving 
from  $6  to  $8  per  diem — and  the  claims  were  poor  com- 
pared with  the  washings  of  1849-50.  In  1852  Edward 
E.  Mattison,  of  Connecticut,  with  a  view  to  economizing 


OF   PLACER-MINING   IN   CALIFORNIA.  49 

labor,  used  a  stream  of  water  under  pressure.  For  this 
purpose  water  was  conveyed  to  the  claim  in  rawhide  hose 
and  discharged  through  a  wooden  nozzle  against  a  bank. 
Torn  by  the  water,  the  earth  was  carried  into  the  sluices 
and  shovelling  was  thus  avoided.  A  large  saving  in  the 
cost  of  mining  was  effected,  a  greater  amount  of  material 
being  washed  in  a  shorter  time.  This  was  the  first  step 
in  hydraulic  mining. 

Canvas  Hose. — Mattison's  experiments  were  imme- 
diately appreciated  and  his  method  adopted.  Hose  made 
of  canvas  was  widely  used,  the  canvas  being  strengthened 
by  netting  and  bound  with  rope. 

Iron  Pipe. — Towards  the  end  of  1853  pipes  made  of 
light  sheet  iron  were  introduced  as  a  substitute  for  canvas 
hose.  The  first  iron  pipe  was  used  by  R.  R.  Craig,  on 
American  Hill,  Nevada  County.  It  consisted  of  about 
one  hundred  feet  of  stove-pipe.  In  1856  a  firm  in  San 
Francisco  commenced  the  manufacture  of  wrought  iron 
pipes  for  hydraulic  mining,  and  during  the  3-ears  1856  and 
1857  a  large  sheet-iron  pipe  forty  inches  in  diameter  was 
laid  for  a  water-conduit  across  a  depression  at  Timbuctoo, 
in  Yuba  County. 

Inverted  Siphons.  —  In  1869  a  wire  suspension 
bridge  across  the  Trinity  River,  near  McGillivray's,  was 
constructed  by  Joseph  INIcGillivray.  This  bridge  sup- 
ported a  fifteen-inch  wrought-iron  pipe  which  conducted 
water  from  a  ditch  situated  at  an  elevation  of  about  two 
hundred  and  forty  feet  above  the  bridge.  The  length  of 
the  pipe  was  nineteen  hundred  and  eight}'  feet,  and  the 
outlet  was  one  hundred  and  thirtv-three  feet  below  the 
level  of  the  inlet.  In  the  fall  of  1870  the  Spring  Valley 
Company,  of  Cherokee,  Butte  Countv,  laid  the  first  large 
"  inverted  siphon  "  in  the  mining  regions.  The  siphon  was 
made  of  wrought  iron,  riveted.  It  was  thirty  inches  in 
diameter  and  fourteen  thousand  feet  long,  crossing  a  de- 
pression of  nearly  one  thousand  feet. 

Improved  Nozzles. — With  the  substitution  of  sheet- 


50  HISTORY   AND   DEVELOPMENT 

iron  pipe  for  canvas  it  was  found  necessary  to  retain  a 
short  piece  of  canvas  hose  in  order  to  obtain  a  flexible  dis- 
charge piece.  This  was  inconvenient  and  troublesome. 
The  ingenuity  of  miners  was  aroused,  and  the  result  was 
the  introduction  of  a  nozzle  called  the  Goose  Neck,  which 
was  a  flexible  iron  joint  formed  by  two  elbows  working 
one  over  the  other. 

The  first  Kifle. — The  radius-plate,  or  rifle,  was  pat- 
ented by  C.  F.  Macy  in  1863,  and  was  subsequently  intro- 
duced and  used  in  all  metallic  jointed  discharge  pipes 
which  had  elbows. 

The  next  improved  hydraulic  nozzle  was  invented  by 
the  Messrs.  R.  R.  &  J.  Craig,  of  Nevada  County.  It  was 
called  Craig's  Globe  Monitor.  This  nozzle  proved  a  suc- 
cess and  was  adopted  at  once  by  the  miners.  Subsequent- 
ly the  Hydraulic  Knuckle-joint  and  Nozzle  was  invented 
by  H.  Fisher,  of  Nevada  County,  and  took  the  place  of 
the  Craig  machine.  In  1870  Mr.  Richard  Hoskins  ob- 
tained a  patent  for  his  Dictator,  a  one-jointed  machine, 
having  an  elastic  packing  in  the  joints  instead  of  the  metal- 
lic faces.  A  few  months  later  Hoskins  patented  the  noz- 
zle called  the  Little  Giant,  which  was  an  improvement 
on  the  Dictator,  and  has  to  a  great  extent  superseded  the 
older  inventions. 

Deflector. — The  next  advance  in  hydraulic  discharge 
machines  was  an  attachment  .to  the  nozzle  called  the 
"deflector,"  the  invention  of  Mr.  H.  C.  Perkins,  and  pat- 
ented Ma)',  1876.  This  is  a  short  piece  of  pipe,  about  an 
inch  larger  in  diameter  than  the  nozzle,  attached  to  the 
latter  by  a  gimbal  joint  and  operated  with  a  lever.  This 
improvement  has  been  followed  by  the  invention  of  the 
Hoskins  Deflector.  This  latter  is  a  flexible  semi-ball  joint 
between  the  end  of  the  discharge  pipe  and  the  nozzle.  It 
is  operated  by  a  lever. 

In  1852  and  1853  placer-mining  was  at  the  height  of 
its  prosperity.  Labor  was  well  paid,  and  employment 
was  easily  obtained  by  all  who  sought  it.     At  this  period 


OF   PLACER-MINING   IN   CALIFORNIA.  5 1 

there  still  remained  a  few  of   the  rich  surface  deposits 
which  had  formerly  been  so  numerous. 

First  Drift-Mining. — The  first  extensive  drift-min- 
ing  in  the  old  river  channels  was  commenced  in  1852  at 
Forest  Hill,  Placer  County;  though  in  1851  a  surface 
claim  at  Brown's  Bar,  on  the  Middle  Fork  of  the  Ameri- 
can River,  was  drifted  out  by  Joseph  McGillivray. 

In  1854,  in  consequence  of  the  reported  discovery  of 
gold-diggings  in  Kern  County,  California,  numbers  of 
miners  flocked  to  the  southern  part  of  the  State,  only  to 
find  there  poor  deposits  of  a  very  limited  area. 

Table  Mountain. — Some  miners  engaged  in  sinking 
a  shaft  near  Jamestown,  Tuolumne  County,  where  the 
gravel  had  been  washed  away,  discovered  gold  at  Table 
Mountain.  Simultaneously  other  miners  traced  a  seam  of 
gravel  containing  gold  along  its  sides,  and  it  was  found 
that  this  seam  ran  into  a  deep,  rocky  channel  lymg  under 
the  mountain.  The  presence  of  water  in  great  quantity 
frustrated  all  attempts  to  work  this  deposit. 

Deep  Tunnels. — Further  explorations  developed  the 
existence  of  channels  running  under  this  ridge,  which  were 
found  to  have  a  westerly  course  and  to  pitch  deeper  as 
work  advanced.  After  several  ineffectual  attempts  to 
drain  the  deposit,  the  gravel,  which  proved  later  to  be 
exceedingly  rich,  was  finally  bottomed  by  a  deep  tunnel. 
"  Ten  square  feet,  superficial  measurement,  yielded  $100,- 
000,  and  a  pint  of  gravel  not  unfrequently  contained  a 
pound  of  gold."  * 

An  impetus  to  deep  gravel  mining  or  drifting  was 
given  by  these  developments,  and  extensive  explorations 
of  a  similar  character  were  undertaken  subsequently  in 
other  parts  of  the  State. 

During  the  years  1856  and  1857  river,  bar,  and  gulch 
mining  were  less  productive,  but  quartz  and  ditch  inte- 
rests became  more  valuable. 

The  Frazer  River  excitement  of  1853  caused  a  stam- 

*  See  Ross  Browne,  "  Reports  on  the  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States,"  1867. 


52      HISTORY   AND   DEVELOPMENT   OF   PEACER-MINING. 

pede  of  miners  and  speculators  to  British  Columbia.  The 
subsequent  developments  of  these  gravel  helds  occasioned 
loss  to  those  who  had  been  attracted  thither  by  the  desire 
of  gain. 

In  1859-60  came  the  exodus  to  the  Comstock,  and  in 
1862  the  rush  to  Idaho  followed. 

Hydrauhc  mining  gained  ground  steadily  from  1852 
to  1865.  As  the  river  bars  and  surface  diggings  one  after 
another  were  exhausted,  the  working  of  the  old  river  de- 
posits by  the  hydraulic  process  became  a  necessity.  At 
the  present  time  it  is  by  this  modern  method  of  mining 
that  the  bulk  of  the  gold  of  this  State  is  produced,  and  in 
this  business  nearly  $100,000,000  of  capital  are  invested. 

The  hydraulic  process  is  now  carried  on  upon  such  a 
gigantic  scale  and  to  so  vast  an  extent  as  to  require  the 
assistance  of  the  science  of  hydraulics  and  engineering. 
Heretofore,  apart  from  the  construction  of  ditches  and 
tunnels  necessary  for  washing  the  gold-bearing  dirt,  en- 
gineers have  had  but  little  to  do  with  the  management  of 
hydraulic  claims. 

The  primitive  placer-mining  of  1852  to  1865  has  passed 
into  history.  Forty-inch  wrought-iron  pipes  have  been 
substituted  for  canvas  hose  and  stove-pipe,  and  with  the 
replacing  of  one-inch  streams  by  a  mass  of  water  dis- 
charged through  nine-inch  nozzles  under  450-foot  pres- 
sure the  last  remnants  of  the  early  methods  disappeared. 


CHAPTER   III. 
GENERAL  TOPOGRAPHY  AND  GEOLOGY  OF  CALIFORNIA." 

The  topographical  features  of  central  California,  as 
demonstrated  by  the  explorations  of  the  State  Geological 
Survey,  are  found  to  be  exceedingly  simple.  Four  equi- 
distant parallel  lines  can  be  used  in  conveying  a  general 
idea  of  the  ph)'sical  geography  of  the  State. 

The  Three  great  Belts  of  California.— A  "  main 
axial  line,"  whose  course  would  be  N.  31°  W.,  passing 
through  the  culminating  peaks  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  for 
a  distance  of  nearly  five  hundred  miles,  can  be  assumed 
as  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  gold  region.  A  second 
parallel,  drawn  fifty  miles  west  of  the  "  main  axial  line," 
will  skirt  the  west  base  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  along  the 
edge  of  the  foot-hills,  from  Red  Bluff  to  Visalia.  A  third 
parallel,  run  equi-distant  from  the  second,  will  follow  very 
closely  the  eastern  edge  of  the  Coast  Ranges  from  the 
neighborhood  of  Clear  Lake  to  that  of  Kern  Lake,  a  dis- 
tance of  over  three  hundred  miles.  A  fourth  equi-distant 
parallel  will  represent,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the  coast  line 
of  the  Pacific,  the  western  base  of  the  Coast  Ranges. 
These  parallels  divide  the  central  portion  of  the  State  be- 
tween Red  Bluff  (about  lat.  40°  N.)  and  Fort  Tejon  (about 
lat.  35°  N.)  into  three  belts — viz.,  the  Sierra,  the  Great 
Valley  of  California,  and  the  Coast  Ranges. 

This  arrangement  of  the  ph3'sical  features  holds  good 
for  a  length  of  four  hundred  miles  in  the  direction  of  the 
"main  axial  line."  This  division  of  California  is  the 
largest  and  by  far  the  most  important,   embracing  almost 

*  See  vol.  i.,  "  Geological  Survey  of  California,"  and  Whitney's  "  Auriferous  Gravels 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  California,"  which  are  the  principal  authorities  for  this  chapter. 

53 


54  TOPOGRAPHY   AND   GEOLOGY 

the  whole  of  the  agricultural  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
mining  districts. 

These  lines  divide  the  State  geologically  as  well  as 
physically.  The  Great  Valley  is  the  belt  of  recent  allu- 
vial deposits  ;  the  Sierra  is  the  belt  of  intrusive  granite, 
of  strata  principally  of  triassic  and  Jurassic  age,  with  im- 
portant pliocene  river  deposits,  of  ante-cretaceous  eleva- 
tion, and  of  metamorphism  induced  by  heat  and  pressure 
and  resulting  in  a  hard  and  crystalline  condition  of  the 
rocks ;  the  Coast  Ranges  form  the  belt  of  strata  chiefly  of 
cretaceous  and  tertiary  age,  of  post-cretaceous  elevation 
and  of  chemical  metamorphism. 

The  Sierra  is  the  belt  of  the  precious  metal,  with  some 
iron  and  copper ;  the  Coast  Ranges,  principally  of  quick- 
silver and  carbonaceous  materials.  The  Sierra  is  the 
region  of  lofty  heights,  the  Coast  Ranges  of  moderate 
elevations,  and  the  Great  Valley  of  nearly  dead  level. 

In  the  Sierra  volcanic  activity  has  ceased,  but  in  the 
Coast  Ranges  solfataric  action  is  still  apparent. 

This  parallelism  does  not  exist  in  the  northern  and 
southern  parts  of  California.  North  of  lat.  40°  N.  the 
Sierra  and  Coast  Ranges  approach  one  another  and  finally 
connect,  the  distinction  between  them  being  not  yet  defi- 
nitely settled.  In  the  south  the  Sierra  swings  to  the  west 
and  joins,  physically  at  least,  with  the  Coast  Ranges, 
which  here,  following  the  coast  line,  trend  to  the  east. 
Thus  the  Great  Valley  is  closed  in  its  upper  and  lower 
extremities.  The  northern  and  the  southern  portions  of 
the  State  have  not  been  thoroughly  examined,  and  the 
present  knowledge  of  their  topograph}-  and  geology  is 
very  limited. 

The  map  accompanying  this  work  shows  the  mountain 
ranges  where  the  auriferous  gravels  exist  and  also  the 
streams  draining  the  hydraulic  mining  districts.'^ 

*  The  map  was  compiled  from  the  latest  official  surveys  by  William  Hammond  Hall, 
State  Engineer  of  California,  For  the  purposes  of  this  work  certain  additions  have  been 
made  by  the  author. 


OF  THE  COAST  RANGE  BELT.  55 

THE  BELT  OF  THE  COAST  RANGES. 

Topographical  L-iiiiits.— Exactly  where  the  Coast 
Ranges  begin  and  where  they  end  is  still  an  open  ques- 
tion, and  to  decide  this  point  satisfactoril}'  more  geological 
research  is  required.  For  the  present  general  purpose,  and 
until  more  exact  data  are  furnished,  it  may  be  assumed 
that  the  belt  of  the  Coast  Ranges  commences  on  the  north 
at,  or  about,  the  mouth  of  the  Klamath  River.  Its  east- 
erly boundary  will  run  southeasterly  to  the  head  of  the 
Sacramento  valley,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Shasta,  and 
thence  continue  to  Fort  Tejon.  From  this  point  it  passes 
to  the  east  of  the  San  Gabriel  range,  through  Cajon 
Pass,  to  the  east  of  the  Temescal  range  and  to  the  south 
of  the  Sierra  de  Santa  Ana,  striking  the  ocean  in  the 
vicinity  of  San  Luis  Rey,  or  perhaps  including  a  narrow 
strip  of  territory  along  the  shore  south  to  the  Mexican 
boundary. 

Mountain  System. — In  this  belt  the  mountains  are 
not  grouped  in  any  one  dominant  range,  but  form  nume- 
rous chains,  much  broken,  and  often  running  into  one 
another,  and  all  nearly  parallel  wnth  the  coast  lines. 
These  chains  are  separated  by  more  or  less  distinct  valleys, 
the  system  being  broken  through  completely  in  only  one 
place — namely,  where  the  united  waters  of  the  Sacra- 
mento and  San  Joaquin  rivers,  which  drain  an  area  of 
fifty-seven  thousand  two  hundred  square  miles,  escape 
through  Suisun,  San  Pablo,  and  San  Francisco  bays  and 
the  Golden  Gate. 

Compared  with  the  Sierra  Nevada,  the  Coast  Ranges 
attain  but  inferior  elevations.  The  dominant  peaks  of 
the  several  chains  vary  in  height  from  thirty-five  hun- 
dred to  six  thousand  feet,  few  exceeding  this  limit. 
In  the  Sierra,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  numerous 
points  over  fourteen  thousand  feet  above  sea  level,  and 
for  a  large  part  of  the  range  the  passes  have  an  elevation 
of  more  than  nine  thousand  feet. 


56  TOPOGRAPHY   AND   GEOLOGY 

General  TopogTaphical  Strvicture. — In  the  ex- 
treme northwestern  part  of  the  State  the  general  struc- 
ture of  the  Sierra  Nevada  prevails — an  axial  mass  of 
granite  associated  with  hard,  crystalline  rocks  forming 
a  high  range.  Coming  south,  and  into  the  northern 
part  of  the  Coast  Range  belt  (west  of  Trinity  and  Kla- 
math rivers),  the  structure  is  modified,  the  granite  disap- 
pears, the  old  crystalline  rocks  are  replaced  b}'  newer 
and  softer  strata,  the  elevations  decrease,  and  the  ranges 
become  more  numerous  and  indistinct,  although  as  far  as 
Clear  Lake  there  is  still  one  dominating  range,  quite  well 
defined  and  parallel  with  the  coast  line. 

South  of  Clear  Lake  the  ranges  are  very  much  inter- 
mixed, the  hills  are  lower  and  more  rolling,  and  the  val- 
leys are  wider.  The  average  elevation  decreases  steadily 
to  the  vicinity  of  San  Francisco  Bay,  the  point  of  maxi- 
mum depression. 

Further  south,  to  the  bay  of  Monterey,  there  are  two 
distinct  ranges,  that  of  Mount  Diablo  on  the  east  and  the 
Santa  Cruz  mountains  on  the  west,  with  the  southern 
part  of  the  bay  of  San  Francisco  and  the  important  valley 
of  Santa  Clara  between. 

South  of  the  bay  of  INIonterey,  as  far  as  San  Luis 
Obispo  County,  the  country  becomes  more  mountainous 
and  confused.  The  general  elevation  increases  and  the 
valleys  become  narrow  and  small.  There  can  be  dis- 
tinguished, however,  three  equally  plain  S3^stems :  the 
continuation  of  the  Mount  Diablo  range,  east  of  the  San 
Benito  River;  the  Gavilan  range  (connecting  with  the 
last  at  its  southern  extremity),  between  the  San  Benito 
and  Salinas  rivers ;  and  the  Palo  Escrito  hills  and  Santa 
Lucia  range  on  the  west. 

From  the  northern  boundary  of  the  belt  to  the  south 
of  this  region  the  ranges  have,  in  general,  a  sufficiently 
well  marked  northwest  and  southeast  direction,  as  seen 
by  the  courses  of  the  principal  streams.  Here,  however, 
a  change  occurs,  the  coast  line,  and  with  it  the  mountain 


OF   THE   COAST   RANGE   BELT.  57 

chains,  making  a  sudden  turn  nearly  east  and  west,  or 
almost  at  a  right  angle.  The  Sierra  Nevada  also  bends 
around  towards  the  west  and  meets  the  Coast  Rangres, 
and  hence  I'esults  a  confusion  of  topographical  structure 
and  of  geological  formation.  The  highest  elevation  of 
the  belt,  that  of  Mount  San  Antonio  in  the  San  Gabriel 
range,  is  here  attained. 

South  of  Los  Angeles  the  coast  line  returns  nearly  to 
its  former  northwest  and  southeast  course,  and  the  ranges 
appear  to  come  into  general  conformity  with  it;  but  there 
is  apparently  much  irregularity  in  the  details,  of  which, 
in  fact,  but  little  information  is  extant. 

Creiieral  Geological  Structure. — As  a  general  rule 
the  rocks  of  the  belt  of  the  Coast  Ranges  are  altered  and 
unaltered  sandstones,  shales  and  slates  of  cretaceous  and 
tertiary  formations,  with  more  or  less  limestone.  The 
sedimentary  beds  have  been  metamorphosed  over  wide 
areas,  crushed  and  folded  to  form  the  various  ranges.  In 
some  regions  volcanic  rocks  appear  in  large  quantities. 
Granite  occurs  here  and  there,  but  almost  always  in  small 
masses,  except  where  the  Sierra  Nevada  makes  its  influ- 
ence felt.  It  forms  an  important  feature,  however,  in 
some  of  the  chains  south  of  Monterey  Bay,  and  forms  the 
axis  of  the  Santa  Monica  range,  which  differs  in  this  re- 
spect from  the  other  Coast  Ranges.  Other  rocks  are 
almost  unknown,  except  where  the  Coast  Ranges  and  the 
Sierra  come  into  close  contact. 

Metaniorphisni.— The  metamorphism  of  the  rocks 
is  principally  chemical,  and  is  very  prevalent  throughout 
the  belt,  often  to  such  an  extent  that  it  is  extremelv  diffi- 
cult, if  not  impossible,  to'  distinguish  between  rocks  of 
the  most  opposite  nature,  such  as  the  eruptive  and  the 
sedimentary.  Especially  noticeable  is  the  enormous  ex- 
tent of  change  of  slates  into  serpentine,  in  connection 
with  which  broken  jaspery  rocks,  also  a  product  of  the 
alteration  of  slates,  ver}-  commonly  occur.  Tliese  combi- 
nations of  serpentines  and  jaspers  are  important  to  the 


58  TOPOGRAPHY   AND   GEOLOGY 

miner,  as  being  the  carriers  of  the  quicksilver  ores  so  ex- 
tensively worked. 

Cretaceous  Formations. — The  cretaceous  forma- 
tions are  geologically  very  important,  especially  from  a 
mining  point  of  view.  In  the  sandstones  of  the  upper 
part  of  this  formation  occur  all  the  workable  beds  of  coal 
yet  discovered. 

Coal  and  Cinnabar  Deposits. — Cinnabar  deposits 
have  been  found  in  California  in  man}'  localities  and  in 
rocks  of  nearly  every  age — in  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  State,  in  the  triassic  strata ;  in 
the  Coast  Ranges,  also  in  the  tertiary.  But,  so  far  as 
known,  no  valuable  bodies  of  this  mineral  have  been  met 
with,  except  in  the  cretaceous,  in  which  position  it  is 
known,  in  small  quantities  at  least,  in  very  numerous 
places,  extending  in  a  line  with  the  metamorphic  cre- 
taceous from  across  the  Oregon  line  in  the  north  to  the 
vicinity  of  Santa  Barbara  in  the  south. 

The  cretaceous  formation,  principall}^  slates,  jaspers, 
serpentine,  and  coarse  sandstones,  is  almost  the  exclusive 
one  north  of  Clear  Lake ;  and  south  from  there  to  San 
Francisco,  in  which  region  limestone  occurs  quite  fre- 
quentl}',  it  still  predominates.  South  of  San  Francisco 
Bay  it  forms  the  central  and  prevailing  mass  of  the 
Mount  Diablo  range,  extending  as  far  as  the  north  end  of 
Tulare  Lake,  and  gradually  yielding  to  the  tertiary.  It 
also  constitutes  the  crest  and  eastern  side  of  the  Santa 
Cruz  range.  In  both  these  chains  the  cretaceous  rocks 
are  chiefl}-  slates  and  sandstones,  often  highly  altered,  with 
limestone  in  smaller  amounts ;  and  serpentine  and  jaspers, 
"  which  have  been  traced  unmistakabl}'  to  their  origin 
as  cretaceous  shales,"  are  abundant.  South  of  Tulare 
Lake  the  cretaceous  formation  is  local  and  comparatively 
unimportant. 

Tertiary  Strata. — The  tertiary  strata  are  principally 
miocene,  of  marine  origin,  and  for  the  most  part  are  not 
much  metamorphosed.     They  are  hardly  known  north  of 


OF  THE  COAST  RANGE  BELT.  59 

Clear  Lake,  although  the  great  bituminous  slate  forma- 
tion has  been  traced  from  Cape  Mendocino  through  the 
country  south  to  Los  Angeles. 

South  of  the  bay  of  San  Francisco  the  strata  of  this 
slate  formation  are  everywhere  turned  up  at  a  high  angle, 
while  north  of  the  bay  they  are  less  disturbed.  The  ter- 
tiary, which  is  so  limited  north  of  San  Francisco  Bay,  in- 
creases in  importance  going  south.  It  flanks  the  cre- 
taceous on  both  sides  of  the  Mount  Diablo  range,  and 
gradually  limits  it.  The  western  and  larger  portion  of 
the  Santa  Cruz  range  (the  geology  of  which  is  somewhat 
complicated  by  the  presence  of  intrusive  granite  rocks  in 
various  places;  is  said  to  be  miocene.  In  the  Gavilan  and 
Santa  Lucia  system  of  ranges  the  tertiar}-  is  continued, 
and  granite  and  highly  metamorphosed  rocks  occur  in 
considerable  quantity ;  but  the  region  is  dry  and  very 
rough,  and  has  been  but  little  explored. 

Asphaltum  Deposits. —  The  different  ranges  in 
Santa  Barbara  and  Ventura  counties  are  made  up  chiefly 
of  miocene  rocks,  consisting  principally  of  a  coarse-grained 
sandstone  below,  and  over  this  a  fine-grained  slate  or 
shale,  often  highly  bituminous  and  generally  ver}'  much 
contorted  and  tilted  nearly  vertical.  In  Santa  Barbara, 
Ventura,  and  Los  Angeles  counties,  where  the  tertiary 
bituminous  slate  predominates,  the  principal  deposits  of 
superficial  asphaltum  have  been  found,  and  here  attempts 
have  been  made  to  strike  flowing  petroleum  wells. 

As  one  approaches  the  Sierra  Nevada  to  the  east  of 
this  region,  and  also  in  going  south,  granite  becomes 
more  frequent  and  the  sedimentary  rocks  get  harder  and 
more  crystalline.  There  is'  a  granitic  belt  formmg  a  con- 
tinuation  of  the  San  Gabriel  range,  and  connecting  at 
Tejon  Pass  with  the  metamorphic  and  granitic  masses  of 
the  Sierra,  the  crystalline  rocks  being  apparently  con- 
tinuous, but  the  disturbance  of  the  tertiary  and  cretaceous 
formations  not  being  visible  east  of  Tejon  Pass.  The 
granite  forming  the  divide  between  the  branches  of  the 


6o  TOPOGRAPHY  AND   GEOLOGY 

Santa  Clara  River  and  the  Mojave  Desert  is  overlaid  on 
the  edge  next  the  plain  with  stratified  beds  of  recent  vol- 
canic material. 

Tin  Ore. — South  of  Los  Angeles  the  ranges  are  of 
mixed  character,  and  are  very  often  considered  as  not 
belonging  to  the  Coast  Ranges  proper.  The  Sierra  de 
Santa  Ana  is  composed  on  the  south  of  granite,  trap- 
pean  and  metamorphic  rocks,  while  on  the  north  coarse 
miocene  sandstone  and  conglomerates  prevail.  The  Te- 
mescal  range  consists  principally  of  granite,  porphyry, 
and  metamorphic  sandstone,  partly  cretaceous  and  partly 
tertiary.  Here  is  the  only  known  locality  on  the  coast 
north  of  Mexico  where  tin  ore  has  been  found. 

Still  further  south  toward  the  Mexican  boundary  there 
is,  along  the  ocean  shore,  a  narrow  strip  of  unaltered  cre- 
taceous and  tertiary  rocks. 

Pliocene  Gravels. — Pliocene  gravels  occur  in  vari- 
ous places  in  the  Coast  Ranges,  sometimes  in  large  de- 
posits. These  are  in  many  cases  the  work  of  disinte- 
grating adjacent  formations.  Gold  has  been  found  in 
some  places,  but  seldom   in  paying  quantities. 

North  of  Clear  Lake,  at  the  bottom  of  the  canons 
which  have  been  cut  out  chiefly  by  running  water,  are 
sometimes  small  deposits  of  gravel  of  pliocene  age. 
These,  especially  at  the  north,  carry  gold.  Between 
Clear  Lake  and  San  Francisco  the  only  large  gravel  bed 
is  the  extensive  one  east  of,  and  not  far  from.  Clear  Lake. 
This  bed  is  covered  in  part  by  lava. 

There  are  several  localities  in  which  deposits  of 
gravel,  probably  pliocene,  occur  in  the  miocene  strata  of 
the  Mount  Diablo  range,  as  south  of  the  Livermore  val- 
ley, but  these  contain  no  gold  so  far  as  known.  Similar 
deposits  are  also  found  on  the  eastern  edge  of  the  Santa 
Cruz  range,  as  on  the  east  slope  of  the  Mount  Bache 
ridge,  where  considerable  ground  has  been  washed  for 
gold,  but  without  profit.  Between  the  Gavilan  and 
Mount  Diablo  ranges,   south   of  Tres  Pinos,  there  is  an 


OF  THE  COAST  RANGE  BELT.  6 1 

immense  mass  of  pliocene  gravel,  apparently  non-auri- 
ferous, made  up  of  pebbles  of  granite,  red  and  green  jas- 
pers, silicious  slates,  and  other  metamorphic  material. 
In  the  Santa  Lucia  range,  near  the  Mission  San  Antonio, 
placers  have  been  worked  to  some  extent,  and  gold  has 
been  found  in  small  quantities  in  several  places. 

The  miocene  strata  of  the  ranges  in  Santa  Barbara 
and  Ventura  counties  are  covered  unconformably  in 
places  by  nearly  horizontal  and  slightly  disturbed  plio- 
cene beds.  In  various  places  south  of  the  junction,  near 
Fort  Tejon,  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Coast  Ranges,  plio- 
cene gravels  occur  over  small  areas.  At  San  Francisco 
canon  these  gravels  have  been  washed  and  more  or  less 
gold  obtained  at  various  times  since  1841  according  to 
some  authorities,  and  since  1838  according  to  Father 
Venegas. 

Along  the  San  Gabriel  range  gold-washing  has  been 
carried  on  intermittently  with  more  or  less  profit.  At 
the  base  of  the  Sierra  de  Santa  Ana  are  immense  accu- 
mulations of  gravel  made  up  of  the  wash  of  disintegrated 
tertiary  strata. 

Gold,  Silver,  and  Copper  Veins. — Veins  of  gold, 
silver,  and  copper  have  been  reported  at  different  locali- 
ties along  the  Coast  Ranges. 

Eruptive  Rocks. — A  belt  of  eruptive  rocks,  of  which 
Mount  St.  Helena  is  the  culminating  point,  extends 
from  near  Napa  to  Clear  Lake  down  to  Suisun  Bav, 
and  large  areas  in  this  region  are  covered  bv  lava, 
obsidian,  pumice,  and  volcanic  ashes.  Especially  in  the 
vicinity  of  Clear  Lake  modern  volcanic  formations  abound, 
and  hot  springs,  sulphur  beds,  and  other  evidences  of 
modern  igneous  action  are  common ;  but  to  the  north 
of  Clear  Lake  no  volcanic  phenomena  of  the  kind  are 
known,  and  south  of  San  Francisco  volcanic  rocks 
are  not  found  in  any  large  quantities.  Hot  and  sul- 
phur springs  are,  however,  quite  common  in  the  Coast 
Ranges. 


62  TOPOGRAPHY  AND  GEOLOGY 

THE  GREAT  VALLEY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

General  Topography. — The  valleys  of  the  Sacra- 
mento and  the  San  Joaquin  rivers  form  in  the  centre  of 
California  a  large  plain,  nearly  elliptical  in  shape,  extend- 
ing from  near  Shasta,  in  lat.  40°  40'  N.,  to  Fort  Tejon,  in 
lat.  34°  50'  N.,  an  extreme  length  of  four  hundred  and 
fifty  miles,  with  an  average  width  of  forty  miles,  and  an 
area  of  eighteen  thousand  square  miles. 

This  plain  is  comparatively  level.  The  Sacramento 
River,  between  Shasta  and  its  mouth,  has  an  average  fall 
of  2.8  feet  per  mile.  The  San  Joaquin  River,  from  Kern 
Lake  to  its  outlet,  has  an  average  inclination  of  i.i  feet 
per  mile.  The  valley  of  the  Sacramento  is  narrower  than 
that  of  the  San  Joaquin.  The  southern  portion  of  the 
latter  is  ver}'  level  and  contains  several  shallow  lakes  of 
considerable  area.  The  evaporation  here  about  equals 
the  water  suppl}'. 

Drainage. — By  far  the  larger  part  of  the  water  com- 
ing into  the  Great  Valley  is  derived  from  the  Sierra  Ne- 
vada. There  is  hardly  a  stream  which  furnishes  water 
throughout  the  year  on  the  east  slope  of  the  Coast  Ranges, 
certainly  not  one  in  the  San  Joaquin  division.  The 
fact  that  many  rivers,  passing  chiefly  through  the  mining 
regions,  flow  down  the  west  slope  of  the  Sierra  and  empty 
into  the  Sacramento  or  San  Joaquin,  makes  the  whole 
drainage  system  worthy  of  attention. 

Rainfall.— The  rainfall  of  the  Great  Valley  is  com- 
paratively small,  especially  in  the  southern  parts.  On  the 
east  slope  of  the  Coast  Ranges  the  amount  of  water  de- 
rived from  rain  is  small.  On  the  west  slope  of  the 
Sierra  there  is  considerable  precipitation,  chiefly  in  win- 
ter, and  in  great  part  in  the  shape  of  snow.  In  the  spring 
and  early  summer  the  flow  of  water  down  the  last  men- 
tioned slope  is  greater  than  at  other  seasons,  so  much 
so  that  every  year  freshets  occur.  Heavy  storms  often 
cause  destructive  floods  here,  and  if  the  theories  of  many 


OF   THE   SIERRA   NEVADA.  63 

who  have  written  on  the  subject  of  forests  are  correct, 
these  floods  will  increase  in  magnitude  with  the  destruc- 
tion of  timber  in  the  Sierra. 

THE   BELT   OF   THE   SIERRA   NEVADA. 

Topographical  Structure. — The  Sierra  Nevada  is 
a  well-dehned  range  of  mountains  situated  on  the  edge  of 
a  high  plateau,  its  eastern  base  being  about  four  thou- 
sand feet  high,  while  its  western  side  slopes  nearl\-  to  the 
sea-level.  Its  eastern  flank  is  comparatively  short  and 
steep ;  its  western,  long  and  with  a  gradual  descent,  aver- 
aging in  the  central  part  of  the  State  about  one  hundred 
feet  per  mile.  This  west  side  is  broken  by  steep  canons 
in  which  the  present  rivers  flow,  running  at  about  right 
angles  with  the  axis  of  the  ridge,  so  that  an  elevation  of 
three  thousand  to  four  thousand  feet  above  the  sea-level 
the  divide  between  any  two  streams  is  from  several  hun- 
dred to  two  thousand  feet,  or  more,  above  the  bottoms  of 
the  canons  on  either  side. 

In  the  northern  part  of  the  State  the  range  is  outlined 
indistinctly,  consisting  of  broken  ridges  with  several  pro- 
minent peaks.  The  general  elevation  may  be  assumed  to 
be  seven  thousand  or  eight  thousand  feet.  Mount  Shasta, 
the  highest  point  of  this  section,  rises  to  a  height  of  four- 
teen thousand  four  hundred  and  forty  feet,  dominating 
over  all  the  others.  South  of  this,  from  Lassen's  Peak 
(lat.  40°  40'  N.)  to  near  Tejon  Pass  (lat.  35°  N.),  the  Sierra 
Nevada  forms  one  clearly  defined  crest,  gradually  in-  ■ 
creasing  in  height  toward  the  south.  Along  the  head- 
waters of  the  Feather  River,  in  Plumas  and  Sierra  coun- 
ties, the  elevation  of  the  prominent  peaks  is  about  nine 
thousand  feet,  and  of  the  passes  from  five  thousand  to  six 
thousand  feet.  Lassen's  Peak  rises  ten  thousand  five  hun- 
dred feet  above  the  sea-level.  The  western  slope  here 
has  a  total  width  of  some  eighty-five  miles. 

Around  the  head-waters  of  the  American  River,  in 
Nevada,  Placer,  and  El  Dorado  counties,  the  main  crest  is 


64  TOPOGRAPHY   AND    GEOLOGY 

a  little  over  nine  thousand  feet  high,  and  the  passes  seven 
thousand  to  eight  thousand  feet ;  Donner  Pass,  through 
which  the  Central  Pacific  Railroad  is  built,  being  seven 
thousand  feet  high.  The  range  here  divides  into  two 
crests  between  which  lies  Lake  Tahoe,  a  body  of  water 
twenty  miles  long,  eight  to  twelve  miles  wide,  and  a  lit- 
tle over  six  thousand  feet  above  sea-level. 

At  the  head-waters  of  the  Merced  and  Tuolumne 
rivers,  in  Tuolumne  and  Mariposa  counties,  the  main 
peaks  are  twelve  thousand  to  thirteen  thousand  feet  high, 
and  the  passes  nine  thousand  to  ten  thousand  feet.  The 
width  of  the  Avestern  slope  is  fully  eighty  miles. 

The  highest  Sierra  is  between  lat.  37°  31'  N.  and  lat.  36° 
N.,  in  the  region  of  the  head-waters  of  the  Kern,  King's, 
and  San  Joaquin  rivers.  Here  the  main  crest  is  twelve 
thousand  to  thirteen  thousand  feet  high,  with  numerous 
points  exceeding  fourteen  thousand  feet,  Mount  Whitney 
being  the  culminating  peak.  The  west  slope  is  some  fifty 
miles  wide,  with  an  average  descent  of  two  hundred  and 
fifty  feet  to  the  mile. 

Still  further  south  the  range  turns  to  the  west,  and 
from  this  point  is  less  marked  in  its  character.  In 
the  southern  part  of  the  State  is  a  mass  of  high,  broken 
ranges  (the  San  Bernardino  range  being  the  most  ex- 
tensive) allied  in  their  general  structure  and  formation  to 
the  main  Sierra  Nevada,  but  as  yet  insufficiently  ex- 
plored. 

General  Geological  Strvicture — The  Sierra  Ne- 
vada is  made  up  of : 

(i)  a  central  intrusive  core  of  granite,  flanked  by 

(2)  metamorphic  slates  of  triassic  and  Jurassic  age  (the 
so-called  auriferous  slate  formation),  over  which  lies 

(3)  a  covering  of  cretaceous,  tertiary,  and  post-tertiary 
deposits,  which  are  either 

{a)  the  river  deposits  which  form  the  material  which 
is  washed,  either  by  hydraulic  or  drift  process,  to  extract 
the  gold  contained  therein  ;  or 


OF   THE   SIERRA   NEVADA.  65 

{8)  sedimentary  volcanic  la3ers  ;  or 

{c)  lava ;  or  finally,  in  some  places, 

{d)  marine  formations. 

Granite. — The  granite  occurs  in  the  extreme  north- 
western part  of  the  State,  disappearing  in  the  northeast- 
_  ern  under  the  extensive  lava  beds,  reappearing  in  Butte 
and  Plumas  counties,  and  continuing  to  increase  in  amount 
of  exposure  toward  the  south,  until  in  Fresno  and  Tulare 
counties  it  forms  territorially  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
belt,  extending  from  the  crest  almost  down  to  the  plain. 

Auriferous  Sltite  Foriuation. — The  auriferous 
slate  formation,  consisting  chiefly  of  metamorphic,  cr^'s- 
talline,  argillaceous,  chloritic  and  talcose  slates,  appears 
with,  but  subordinate  to,  the  granite  in  the  northwest.  It 
appears  again  in  Plumas  and  Butte  counties,  increasing 
in  importance  as  the  overlying  lava  decreases.  North  of 
the  American  River  it  occupies  nearly  the  whole  \yidth 
of  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierra,  with  occasional  areas 
of  granite  enclosed  in  it.  Going  south,  it  gradually  con- 
tracts in  width,  being  of  but  little  importance  south  of 
jVIariposa  County.  In  the  extreme  south,  at  the  junction 
of  the  Sierra  and  the  Coast  Ranges,  it  reappears  and  con- 
tinues in  San  Bernardino  and  San  Diego  counties  in  con- 
nection with  the  granite. 

The  strata  of  this  formation  are  elevated  very  con- 
siderably, often  in  a  nearly  vertical  position.  Speaking  in 
very  general  terms,  it  may  be  said  that  the  strike  of  the 
slates  is  usually  parallel  with  the  axis  of  the  range  and  the 
dip  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  belt  is  generally  to  the 
east. 

Gold  Quartz  Veins. — In  this  formation  occur  al- 
most exclusively  the  veins  of  quartz  which  carry  gold  in 
amounts  which  pay  for  working.  While  such  veins  occur 
also  in  the  granite,  and  likewise,  as  has  been  mentioned, 
in  some  of  the  Coast  Range  formations,  the  paying  gold 
quartz  is  rarely  found  outside  of  the  auriferous  slate 
formation.     Some  of  these  veins  are  of  very  great  size, 


66  TOPOGRAPHY  AND   GEOLOGY 

notably  the  "  great  quartz  vein,"  which  has  been  traced 
from  near  the  centre  of  Amador  County  through  Cala- 
veras and  Tuolumne  into  Mariposa  to  the  Mariposa  Es- 
tate, a  distance  of  eighty  miles.  The  vein  attains  a  width, 
in  places,  of  several  hundred  feet. 

Carboiiiferovis  Limestones. — There  are  certain 
limestones  in  Shasta  and  Butte  counties  which  are  car- 
boniferous, the  oldest  formation  known  in  the  State,  and 
which  are  possibly  the  same  as  those  found  here  and  there 
throughout  the  gold-mining  region. 

Marine  Sedimentary  Deposits. — The  marine  sedi- 
mentary deposits  of  cretaceous  and  tertiary  age  occur  in 
the  foothills  all  along  the  eastern  margin  of  the  Great 
Valley,  lying  unconformably  on  the  upturned  edges  of 
the  auriferous  slates.  Their  greatest  development  is  in 
Kern  County,  between  Kern  and  White  rivers.  The  rock 
is  lor  the  most  part  a  soft  sandstone,  made  up  chiefly  of 
granite  debris. 

Lava. — The  chief  lava  country  is  in  Plumas  and  Butte 
and  the  region  north  of  these  counties,  and  east  of  Trinity 
and  Klamath  rivers.  Here  is  a  series  of  volcanic  cones,  of 
which  Lassen's  Peak  and  Mount  Shasta  are  the  most  pro- 
minent, fnnn  which  flowed,  in  the  later  tertiary  or  still 
more  recent  times,  the  streams  of  lava  which  now  cover 
many  thousands  of  square  miles  of  northern  California 
and  southern  Oregon.  The  limitation  of  the  auriferous 
belt  at  the  north,  in  Plumas  and  Butte  covmties,  is  due 
not  to  the  thinning  out  of  the  gold-bearing  formation,  but 
to  its  being  covered  by  this  volcanic  mass. 

Along  the  crest  of  the  Sierra,  to  the  south,  are  nume- 
rous volcanic  vents  and  here  and  there  are  areas  of  lava, 
but  these  are  comparatively  small.* 

Sedimentary  Volcanic  Layers. — Very  frequent, 
and  associated  with  the  gravel  deposits,  are  the  sedimen- 
tary volcanic  layers,  consisting  of  fragments  of  lava  which 

*  As  to  the  Tuolumne  Table  Mountain  see  J.  Ross  Browne,  "Mineral  Resources  of  the 
U.  S.,"  1867,  page  25. 


OF   THE   SIERRA   NEVADA.  6/ 

have  been  carried  to  a  distance  by  water  and  deposited 
as  breccia  or  conglomerate  of  volcanic  ashes  or  lapilli. 
These  layers  stratified,  often  in  alternation  with  gravel 
or  clay,  generally  cover  the  gravel  deposits. 

Gravel  Deposits. — The  gravel  deposits  occur  in 
every  variety  of  texture,  from  very  fine  pipe  clay, 
through  sands  and  gravels,  to  rolled  pebbles  and  boul- 
ders sometimes  weighing  tons.  It  is  now  generally  ac- 
cepted that  they  have  been  laid  down  by  the  action  of 
a  system  of  tertiary  rivers,  which  had  the  same  general 
course  (nearly)  as  the  present  streams  on  the  west  slope 
of  the  Sierra,  but  whose  channels  were  wider  and  slopes 
greater.  The  waters  of  these  rivers,  eroding  the  auri- 
ferous slates  with  the  included  quartz  veins,  concentrated 
the  precious  metals  in  deposits  often  three  hundred  and 
fifty  to  four  hundred  feet  wide  at  the  bottom  and  some- 
times several  thousand  feet  wide  on  top.  Their  depth 
now  varies  from  a  few  inches  to  six  or  seven  hundred  feet. 
Volcanic  eruptions  have  in  places  covered  these  deposits 
with  lava  and  tufa  hundreds  of  feet  deep.  Denudation 
and  erosion  ensued  and  the  products  of  volcanic  activ- 
ity have  sometimes  been  covered  in  turn  with  gold-bear- 
ing detritus.  Quantities  of  fossil  wood  and  numerous  re- 
mains of  land  and  water  animals  have  been  found  in  the 
deposits  and  are  being  constantly  unearthed  as  the  mines 
are  being  worked.* 

The  deep  canons  of  the  rivers  of  the  extreme  northern 
counties,  especially  the  Klamath  and  its  branches,  contain 


*  In  reference  to  the  occurrence  of  g6ld  the  following  note,  taken  from  the  Enginetring 
and  Mining  yournal,  February  lo,  1877,  relative  to  the  discovery  of  pay  gold  in  the  New 
South  Wales  coal  measures,  will  be  found  interesting.  Mr.  C.  S.  Wilkinson,  F.R.S.,  writes 
from  the  Geological  Survey  Office,  Geelong,  under  date  of  November  25,  to  the  Mining  De- 
partment, as  follows : 

"  During  my  examination  of  the  Tallawang  Gold  Field  Reserve  I  observed  the  important 
fact  that  the  gold  found  in  tertiary  alluvial  deposits  at  the  old  Tallawang  and  Clough's  Gully 
diggings  has  been  chiefly  derived  from  conglomerates  in  the  coal  measures.  These  conglo- 
merates are  associated  with  beds  of  sandstone  and  shales  containing  the  fossil  plant  of  our 
coal  measures,  ihe g-iosso/>teris.  .  .  .  This  is  the  first  time  that  gold  has  been  noticed  to  occur 
in  payable  quantity  in  the  coal  measures  in  the  colony,  and  it  is  not  unworthy  of  remark  that 
we  here  possess  one  of  the  most  ancient  alluvial  deposits  in  the  world." 


68  TOPOGRAPHY   AND   GEOLOGY 

large  amounts  of  gravel  which  have  been  washed  quite 
extensively.  These  gravels  are,  however,  thought  to  be 
ordinary  river  deposits  on  a  large  scale.  In  the  southern 
part  of  the  State,  in  Santa  Barbara  and  San  Diego  coun- 
ties, gold-washing  has  been  carried  on  to  some  extent,  but 
under  unfavorable  conditions  and  apparently  without 
much  profit. 

Deposits  at  La  Grange.  —  The  deposits  at  La 
Grange,  Stanislaus  County,  in  a  distance  of  one  and  a 
half  miles  in  a  northerly  and  southerly  direction,  cross 
four  distinct  and  widely  varying  formations  (see  annexed 
topographical  and  geological  section),  which,  enumerated 
in  accordance  with  their  relative  ages,  are :  argillaceous 
slates,  occurring  north  of  the  Tuolumne  River,  probably 
Jurassic  ;  diorite  ;  a  thin  stratum  of  basaltic  tufa ;  and  post- 
pliocene  auriferous  deposits  of  sand  and  gravel. 

The  slates  have  a  general  strike  northwesterly  and 
southeasterly,  parallel  to  the  general  trend  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  Mountains,  and  dip  at  an  angle  of  about  sixty  de- 
grees. The  diorite  is  occasionally  porphyritic,  changing 
into  aphanite  and  serpentine  in  places  which,  so  far  as  ob- 
served, are  not  on  the  direct  line  of  the  section.  It  some- 
times contains  quartz,  and  must  be  classed  as  syenitic. 
Where  overlaid  by  basaltic  tufa  or  gravel  it  is  very  much 
decomposed,  presenting  the  appearance  of  clay  shale, 
showing  thick-bedded  stratification,  a  water- worn  and  un- 
dulating surface,  with  numerous  pot-holes  similar  to  a 
river  bed. 

The  basaltic  tufa,  from  two  to  six  feet  thick,  occurs  in 
more  or  less  isolated  patches,  having  been  washed  away 
in  places  and  cut  up  b}-  streams  previous  to  or  during  the 
deposition  of  the  gravel.  It  is  generally  of  a  light  green- 
ish or  yellowish  color,  occasionally  pink  or  of  a  rusty  iron 
tinge,  and  frequently  contains  angular  quartz  pebbles  and 
rounded  masses  of  flint-like  rock. 

The  auriferous  deposits  of  sand  and  gravel  rest  upon 
the  tufa,  and  are  not  capped  by  any  volcanic  flow.     Bones 


OF   THE    SIERRA    NEVADA.  69 

and  teeth  of  the  elephant  have  been  found  imbedded  in 
them.  The  gravel  is  composed  of  such  rocks  only  as  are 
found  to  the  eastward  in  the  foothills  and  the  mountains 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  consequently  must  have  come 
from  that  general  direction. 

A  section  of  the  gravel  occurring  in  the  New  Kelly 
claim  shows  the  deposit  to  consist  of : 

I,  Top  soil  (red  sand) 1.7  feet. 

II.  Coarse  red  gravel  with  sand  (the  gravel  is  chietly 

granite)    6.1     " 

III.  Red  cement  hard-pan 6.0    " 

IV.  White  sandy  clay o. S    " 

V.   Red  cement  hard-pan 3.3    " 

VI.  Sand  and  pebbles 6.5    " 

VII.  Loose  yellowish  sand 7.4     " 

VIII.  Dark-colored  gravel  of  granite,  slate,  porphyry, 
greenstone,  aphanite,  serpentine,  quartzite, 
diorite,  etc 13.2    " 

Total 45  o    " 

Quartz  gravel  of  large  size  is  of  rare  occurrence. 
Boulders  of  diorite,  several  tons  in  weight,  are  common 
in  some  of  the  deeper  holes  of  the  bed-rock.  The  greater 
part  of  the  gold  is  confined  to  the  lower  stratum  of  gravel, 
next  to  the  bed-rock,  and  is  associated  with  magnetic  iron 
and  platinum. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  DISTRIBUTION   OF  GOLD  IN   DEPOSITS  AND  THE 
VALUE  OF  DIFFERENT  STRATA. 

No  absolutely  satisfactory  explanation  has  yet  been 
given  of  the  distribution  of  gold  in  deposits.  * 

The  opinion  is  held  by  some  that  the  precious  metal 
is  uniformly  disseminated  throughout  the  beds.  But  this 
is  the  case  only  in  very  exceptional  instances,  and  the  un- 
equal distribution  of  the  gold  f  is  so  general  as  to  have 
given  rise  in  California  to  the  expression  "pay  dirt," 
which  means  the  stratum  or  strata  containing  gold  in 
amounts  which  render  work  profitable. 

Top  Gravel  sometimes  pays. — In  a  few  instances 
the  gold  occurs  in  comparatively  large  amounts  in  thin 
streaks  of  cemented  gravel  scattered  here  and  there  in 
the  alluvions,  and  in  some  shallow  banks  X  it  is  quite 
generally  disseminated.  Even  in  high  banks  the  upper 
portion  or  "  top  gravel,"  when  consisting  of  fine  light 
quartz-wash  with  no  boulders  or  pipe-clay,  and  where  the 
cost  of  hydraulicking  is  very  small  (owing  to  the  facilities 
of  a  heavy  grade,  sufficient  dump,  and  cheap  water),  has 
been  washed  at  a  profit,  though  carrying  an  insignificant 
amount  of  gold  per  cubic  yard.  For  this  reason  the  miner 
always  tests  the  whole  of  the  deposit. 

*  See  "  The  Auriferous  Gravels  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  California,"  p.  516.  By  J.  D. 
Whitney. 

t  On  the  subject  of  the  relative  position  of  gold  in  deposits  see  Report  of  Mr.  Stutchbury, 
Government  Geologist  of  New  South  Wales ;  Quarterly  Jour.  Geol.  Sac.  1858,  p.  583,  M.  A. 
Selwin  ;  "  Gold-Fields  and  Mineral  Districts  of  Victoria,"  pp.  81,  82,  87,  131,  173,  R.  Brough 
Smythe  ;  Cotta's  "  Lehre  v.  d.  Erzlagerstatten,"  vol.  i.  p.  loi,  and  vol.  ii.  p.  556 ;  Murchison's 
"  Russia  and  the  Ural  Mts.,"  vol.  i.  pp.  482-487,  and  "  Siluria,"  p.  456  ;  Whitney's  "  Auri- 
ferous Gravels  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,"  p.  361  ;  J.  Grimm's  "  Lagerst3tten  d.  Nutzbaren  Mine- 
ralien,"  p.  26  ;  Hartt's  "  Geol.  and  Phys.  Geog.  of  Brazil,"  pp.  50,  51,  159,  160  ;  Mawe's  Tra- 
vels, pp.  222-227  ;  Munroe's  "  Mineral  Wealth  of  Japan,"  Trans.  Amer.  Inst,  of  Mining  Engi- 
neers, vol.  V.  p.  236  ;  "  Gold  Deposits  of  Jaragua,"  Ann.  d.  Mines^  1817,  vol.  ii.  p.  202. 

X  See  "  Gold-Fields  and  Mineral  Districts  of  Victoria,"  p.  84. 

70 


DISTRIBUTION   OF   GOLD    IN   GRAVEL.  "Jl 

The  top  gravel  of  the  channel  which  passes  through 
Columbia  Hill,  Nevada  County,  has  in  several  instances 
been  successfully  washed.  This  is  especially  remarkable 
on  account  of  the  great  depth  of  this  deposit,  which,  from 
the  explorations  on  Badger  Hill  and  Grizzly  Hill,  is  in- 
ferred to  be  from  six  hundred  to  six  hundred  and  twenty 
feet  deep. 

Gold  ill  the  Grass-Roots. — Not  unfrequently  a  fine 
lamina  gold  is  found  in  the  grass-roots.  This  last  men- 
tioned circumstance  is  in  no  way  localized,  the  same  fact 
having  been  noted  in  other  countries.  Mawe  called  atten- 
tion to  the  existence  of  gold  in  the  grass-roots  on  Mount 
San  x\ntonio,*  in  Brazil ;  and  Walsh  states  that  gold  was 
first  discovered  in  the  deposits  between  San  Jose  and  San 
Joao,  Brazil,  by  Paulistas,  who,  pulling  tufts  of  grass, 
"  found  numerous  particles  of  gold  entangled  in  the 
roots."  t 

Pay  Gravel  soniet lines  high  above  Becl-Rock, 
—At  the  Polar  Star  Mine,  Indiana  Hill,  Placer  County, 
the  best  pay  was  found  from  six  to  eighty  feet  above  bed- 
rock. At  diggings  near  Forest  Hill,  Placer  Count}^  the 
gravel  twenty  to  sixty  feet  above  the  bed-rock  has  yielded 
profits.  At  Bath  a  stratum  one  hundred  feet  above  bed- 
rock was  drifted  profitably  and  the  top  dirt  h^'draulicked 
subsequently. 

Pay  Gravel  generally  near  Bed-Rock. — But  ex- 
perience has  proved  that,  as  an  almost  universal  rule,  the 
top  gravel  of  deep  alluvions  is  not  rich  enough  to  warrant 
large  investments  of  capital.  Also  that  the  "  pay  "  is  ob- 
tained, not  from  the  washings  of  the  entire  bank,  but 
chiefly  from  that  stratum  or  those  strata  which  are  in 
most  cases  within  eight  or  ten  feet  of  the  bed-rock. 
Where  this  is  of  slate  upturned  on  its  edges  the  gold 
frequently  permeates  it  one  or  two  feet.:|: 

*  Mawe'<i  Travels,  p.  264.  +  Walsh's  "  Notices  of  Brazil."  1828-20.  vol.  ii.  p.  U2. 

%  See  Murchison's  "  Siluria."  p.  456.  and  "  Russia  and  the  Ural  Mountains,"  vol.  i.  p. 
487  ;  also  "  Gold-Fieldsand  Mineral  Districts  of  Victoria,"  pp.  86,  106. 


72  DISTRIBUTION   OF   GOLD   IN   GRAVEL. 

Tuolumne  River  Claims.  —  The  gold  alluvions 
found  near  and  along  the  banks  of  the  Tuolumne  River, 
Stanislaus  County,  present  some  striking  examples  of  the 
distribution  of  the  precious  metal.  The  pay  dirt  in  the 
Chesnau  claim  is  confined  to  within  six  feet  of  the  bed- 
rock. In  the  Sicard  claim,  six  hundred  feet  south  of  the 
last  and  across  a  ravine,  with  banks  twenty  to  forty  feet 
high,  the  gold  is  disseminated  more  generally  so  long  as 
there  are  no  sand  strata  ;  but  whenever  the  latter  appear 
the  pay  is  confined  to  near  the  bed-rock. 

In  the  Patricksville  Light  claim  the  pay  stratum  is  six 
or  seven  feet  thick  and  adjoins  the  bed-rock.  The  gold  is 
concentrated  in  this  layer  so  long  as  there  are  sand  strata 
in  the  bank,  but  with  their  disappearance  it  becomes  more 
diffused  throughout  the  detritus. 

At  the  French  Hill  claim  the  pay  was  limited  almost 
exclusively  to  the  gravel  near  the  bed-rock, 

Nevada  County. — The  bulk  of  the  pay  dirt  in  the 
cement  gravel  in  Nevada  County  is  within  thirty  feet  of 
the  bottom.  In  drift  claims  the  workings  are  nearly  al- 
ways confined  to  within  a  few  feet  of  the  bed  of  the 
channel. 

Sand  generally  poorer  than  Gravel.— In  the 
gold-bearing  drift  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  layers  consisting 
exclusively  of  wash-sand  are  generally  found  to  contain 
very  little  if  any  of  the  precious  metal. 

Rich  Pay  in  Undulations  and  Depressions. — 
At  French  Hill,  Stanislaus  County,  where  the  bed-rock 
was  undulating,  and  in  depressions  found  around  a  little 
hill  formed  by  a  sudden  rise  in  the  bed-rock,  the  gravel 
paid  better  than  in  any  other  portion  of  the  claim. 

The  gold-fields  south  of  Miask,*  in  the  Ural  Mountains, 
present  a  similar  case,  all  the  undulating  ground  and  de- 
pressions around  conical  hills  being  the  most  productive 
of  gold. 

At  the  Patricksville  Light  claim  a  large  hole  in  the 

*  "Russia  and  the  Ural  Mountains,"  vol.  i.  p.  488. 


VALUES   OF   DIFFERENT   STRATA.  73 

bed-rock,  twenty- five  feet  deep,  was  bottomed.  The  hole 
was  filled  with  gravel,  but  no  pay  was  obtained.  The  pay 
stratum  was  found  to  be  on  a  level  with,  and  a  continua- 
tion of,  the  pay  stratum  of  the  rest  of  the  claim.  On  the 
other  hand,  at  the  Chesnau  and  French  Hill  claims  when- 
ever these  hollows  are  found  a  large  yield  of  gold  is  in- 
variably obtained. 

The  experience  of  miners  in  the  gold-fields  of  Victoria 
has  led  to  the  conclusion  that  "in  large  auriferous  rivers 
gold  is  always  found  on  the  bars  or  points,  and  not  in 
the  deep  pools  or  bends."  In  substantiation  of  this  are 
cited  Reid's  Creek,  Woolshed,  Twist's  Fall,  Yackandanah 
near  Osborne's  Flat,  and  Rowdy  Flat ;  at  each  of  these 
places  large  holes  were  cleaned  out  and  only  a  few  colors 
obtained,  while  shallow  flats  immediately  below  them  were 
very  rich.* 

In  gulch-mining  it  sometimes  happens  that  from  the 
position  of  the  bed-rock  the  detrital  accumulations  assume 
the  form  of  reclining  cones,  the  apex  reposing  upon  the 
top  of  the  hill.  Where  such  is  the  case  the  bulk  of  the 
gold  is  concentrated  in  the  lower  end  of  the  deposit. 
These  gulches  are  frequently  found  to  be  exceedinglv 
rich. 

These  facts  are  cited  merelv  as  an  explanatory  outline 
of  the  subject,  and  to  show  whv  a  svstem  of  sluicing 
should  be  adopted  which  bottoms  the  entire  deposit. 

EXAMPLES  OF  THE  COMPARATIVE  VALUES  OF  THE  DIF- 
FERENT GRAVEL  STRATA. 

North  Blooiiifield.^To  ascertain  the  comparative 
value  of  the  gravel  strata  at  Malakoff.  Nevada  Countv,  on 
the  ground  of  the  North  Bloomfield  Mining  Companv,  a 
series  of  tests  was  made  of  the  dirt  extracted  from  a  shaft 
sunk,  two  hundred  and  seven  feet  deep,  in  the  channel. 
The  first  one  hundred  and  twent\-  feet  from  the  surface 

*  "  Gold-Fields  and  Mineral  Districts  of  Victoria,"  p.  134. 


74  VALUES   OF   DIFFERENT   STRATA. 

contained  a  large  number  of  very  tine  colors  to  the  pan^ 
but  of  inconsiderable  weight.  The  gravel  from  the  re- 
maining eighty-seven  feet,  sunk  to  the  bed-rock,  contained 
coarser  and  heavier  gold,  the  last  eight  feet  averaging 
from  5  to  20  cents  per  pan.  Drifts  opened  from  the  bot- 
tom of  this  shaft  were  systematically  sampled  and  com- 
pared with  equal  quantities  taken  from  the  layers  of  the 
upper  bank.  The  several  samples  aggregated  two  and  a 
half  tons,  all  of  which  were  panned  out  carefully  in  two 
hundred  and  forty  tests  ;  and  the  results  obtained  showed 
that  the  blue  or  lower  gravel  stratum  contained  $r  50  per 
ton,  while  the  white  or  upper  gravel  gave  a  large  number 
of  fine  colors,  but  of  insignificant  weight. 

From  1 870  to  1874  the  North  Bloomfield  Mining  Com- 
pany washed  three  and  one-quarter  million  cubic  yards  of 
top  gravel,  which  yielded  only  2.9  cents  per  cubic  yard 
and  a  gross  profit  of  $2,232  84.  In  1877  a  rough  estimate 
was  made  of  the  comparative  yield  of  the  upper  and  lower 
gravel  washed  during  the  year.  The  top  gravel  was 
assumed  to  be  from  a  few  feet  to  over  two  hundred  feet 
deep,  and  the  bottom  gravel  sixty-five  feet  deep. 

The  results  obtained  were  that  1,591,730  cubic  3-ards 
of  top  gravel  yielded  3.8  cents  per  cubic  yard,  and  702,- 
200  cubic  yards  of  bottom  gravel  returned  32.9  cents  per 
cubic  3'ard. 

Patrioksville  Light  Claim. — To  investigate  more 
thoroughl}'  the  question  a  test  of  top  and  bottom  gravel 
was  made  at  the  Light  claim,  Patricksville  :  58,340  cubic 
yards  of  top  gravel  yielded  $1,200,  or  2  cents  per  cubic 
yard.  The  bottom  gravel  (four  feet  deep)  was  then 
washed,  when  it  was  discovered  that  two- thirds  of  this 
gravel  had  been  drifted  extensively  ;  but  notwithstand- 
ing this  fact  4,966  cubic  yards  yielded  $2,775  o?-  o^  55 
cents  per  cubic  yard. 

La  Grange  Liglit  Claim. — A  trial  of  top  dirt  was 
also  made  at  the  Light  claim.  La  Grange:  41,038  cubic 
yards  of  top  dirt  yielded  $1,500,  or  3.7  cents  per  cubic 


VALUES   OF   DIFFERENT   STRATA.  75 

yard.  The  ground,  in  both  of  the  last  mentioned  in- 
stances, was  surveyed  and  the  returns  per  cubic  yard  are 
as  accurate  as  it  is  practicable  to  obtain. 

Polar  Star  Mine.— In  the  appendix  to  the  "  Aurife- 
rous Gravels  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  California,"  Pro- 
fessor W.  H.  Pettee  estimates  the  value  of  the  top  gravel 
at  the  Polar  Star  Mine  to  be  about  1 1  cents  per  cubic 
yard,  and  at  Quaker  Hill  the  yield  of  the  top  gravel  is 
supposed  to  approximate  6  cents  per  cubic  yard.  The 
yield  of  the  bottom  gravel,  however,  is  not  given,  and  the 
estimates  of  the  upper  gravel  are  approximates  based  on 
the  statements  of  others,  and  not  the  results  of  accurate 
detailed  surveys. 


CHAPTER  V. 

AMOUNT    OF    WORKABLE    GRAVEL    REMAINING    IN 
CALIFORNIA. 

The  quantity  of  auriferous  gravel  remaining  on  the 
flanks  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  is  very  great,  but  necessarily 
the  amount  available  for  hydraulic  mining  is  limited. 

Miiiiiiiiiiu  Pay  Yield. — The  minimum  yield  per 
cubic  yard  of  material  which  can  be  mined  profita- 
bl}^  must  be  considered  in  determining  the  extent  of 
workable  deposits.  This  cannot  be  stated  in  advance 
without  a  knowledge,  in  any  given  case,  of  the  other 
factors :  as  area  of  ground,  character  and  depth  of  deposit, 
facilities  for  working  and  dump,  supply  and  cost  of  water, 
price  of  labor  and  amount  of  capital  invested.  In  certain 
localities,  even  under  very  disadvantageous  circumstan- 
ces,  it  has  paid  to  work  gravel  yielding  only  four  cents 
per  cubic  yard ;  and  Mr.  Skidmore  states  that,  within  his 
personal  knowledge,  a  claim  near  Iowa  Hill,  Placer  Coun- 
ty, in  1879  paid  "a  fair  profit"  when  the  product  was 
only  three  cents  per  cubic  yard. 

With   an   abundance  of   cheap   water,  four  per   cent. 

grades,  good  dump,  banks  of  light  gravel  one  hundred 

and  fifty  feet  in  height  and  over,  a  large  area  of  ground, 

labor  at  one  dollar  per  diem,  and  good  management,  the 

total  running  expenses  ought  not  to  exceed  three  cents  per 

cubic  yard  at  the  present  time,  and  with  present  methods. 

Therefore  under  these  conditions  gravel    yielding  more 

than  three  cents  per  yard  ought  to  pay  a  greater  or  less 

rate  of  interest  on  the  capital  invested  in  the  purchase  of 

the  claim   and    water   rights,   the    building  of   necessary 

ditches,  flumes,  pipes,  etc.,  and  in  the  other  appliances 

requisite  for  commencing  active  operations. 

76 


AMOUNT   OF   WORKABLE   GRAVEL   L\   CALIFORNLV.      "JJ 

The  reports  of  the  State  Engineer  of  Calif (;rnia  (1880) 
and  of  Lieut.-Col.  Mendell,  U.  S.  A.  (1882),  give  the  fol- 
lowing data  of  the  estimated  amounts  of  workable  gold 
deposits  remaining  along  the  rivers  of  the  principal  hy- 
draulic region  on  the  west  flank  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  in 
California : 

Cub.  yds.  of  Gravel. 

The  Upper  and  Lower  Feather,  large  amounts Unestimated. 

The  Yuba  and  its  tributaries,  about 700,000,000 

The  Bear         "  "  "     50,000,000 

The  American  "  "     75,000,000 

The  Cosumnes,  principally  at  Hill  Top,  from  11,000,- 

000  to  12,000,000,  say 11,500,000 

The  Mokelumne,  enormous  amounts,  but  not  favor- 
ably situated Unestimated. 

The  Calaveras,  upper  portion Unestimated. 

"  "  lower  portion,   principally   at    Jenny 

Lind 22, 500,000 

The  Stanislaus Unestimated. 

The  Tuolumne,  large  amounts Unestimated. 

"  The  quantity  of  auriferous  gravel  now  remaining  on  the  flanks  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  is  practically  unlimited.  Only  a  comparatively  small  portion 
of  the  whole  can  be  regarded  as  workable  under  existing  conditions."  * 

Since  Mr.  Hague's  report  upon  Eureka  Lake  proper- 
ty (1876),  wherein  it  is  stated  that  the  quantity  to  be 
mined  between  the  Yubas  was  700,000,000  cubic  yards 
(roughly  estimated),  explorations  have  proven  that  this 
estimate  is  too  large.  It  is  true  that  there  was  that  quan- 
tity of  gravel,  and  perhaps  more,  in  that  locality.  But 
since  then  a  quantity,  possibly  exceeding  100,000,000  yards, 
has  been  mined  out,  and  the  result  of  the  work  has  prov- 
en that  a  portion  of  this  gravel  channel  can  never  be 
mined  profitably,  for  the  reasons,  ist,  that  it  is  capped 
with  lava  and  cannot  be  hydraulicked,  and  it  will  not  pay 
to  drift ;  and,  2d,  another  portion  is  so  situated  that  it 
is  impossible  to  drain  it,  or  it  is  too  far  from  the  streams 
to  dispose  of  the  debris.  It  is  now  estimated  that  not 
more  than  400,000,000  cubic  yards  of  gravel  remain  here 
available  for  washing. 

*  Report  on  Mining  Debris  in  Cal.  Rivers,  by  Lieut. -Col.  G.  H.  Mendell,  U.S.A.,  p.  35. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE   DIFFERENT    METHODS   OF  MINING  GOLD-PLACERS. 

The  gold  alluvions  occur  in  many  different  forms  : 
in  river  channels,  in  basins  and  on  flats,  as  surface  de- 
posits of  sand  and  gravel,  or  as  accumulations  of  detritus 
(consisting  of  clay,  sand,  gravel,  pebbles,  and  boulders  of 
all  sizes)  covered  with  varying  thicknesses  of  lava  and 
other  volcanic  products. 

Miners'  Classification  of  Deposits. — Miners  clas- 
sify the  deposits  in  various  ways,  according  to  their  mode 
of  occurrence  and  topographical  position,  and  according 
to  the  mming  systems  employed  in  working  them.  The 
term  "  shallow  placers "  is  applied  to  deposits  whose 
depth  varies  from  a  few  inches  to  several  feet,  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  "  deep  placers,"  which  often  cover 
large  areas  and  have  a  depth  varying  from  one  hundred 
to  several  hundred  feet. 

"  Hill  Claims,"  or  deposits  of  gravel  on  hills ;  "  Bench 
Claims,"  or  placers  occurring  in  bench  form  on  declivi- 
ties and  above  the  level  of  existing  rivers ;  "  Gulch  Dig- 
gings," found  in  gulches  and  ravines ;  "  Flat  Deposits,"  on 
small  plains  or  flats  ;  "  Bar  Claims,"  or  bars  of  sand  and 
gravel  on  the  sides  of  streams,  generally  above  the  water- 
level  ;  and  "  Beach  Sands,"  or  the  auriferous  sands  of  the 
sea-shore,  are  terms  in  common  use,  as  well  as  the  names 
"  sluice,"  "  drift,"  and  "  hydraulic  "  diggings. 

Classification  of  Minings  Operations. — The  min- 
ing methods  in  common  use  may  be  divided  into  two 
general  classes — viz.,  Surface-Mining  and  Deep-Mining. 

78 


DIFFERENT   METHODS   OF   MINING.  Jg 

SURFACE-MINING. 

This  term  may  be  applied  to  the  operations  on  the  shal- 
low placers  from  which  in  early  days  large  returns  have 
been  obtained,  but  which  from  their  nature  are  of  a  tran- 
sient character,  and  in  California  are  no  longer  in  use 
to  any  great  extent. 

Under  this  head  will  be  treated  the  methods  of  Dry- 
Washing,  Beach-Mining,  River  or  Bar  Mining,  Ground- 
Sluicing,  and  Booming, 

Dry- Washing. — Dry-washing  was  carried  on  in  the 
early  days,  principally  by  Mexicans,  in  those  localities 
where  water  could  not  be  obtained.  The  Mexican  meth- 
od consisted  in  pulverizing  selected  rich  dirt,  thoroughly 
drying  it,  and  then  working  it  in  a  batea.  The  earthy 
portions,  b}*  a  circular  motion  given  to  the  disk,  were 
separated  from  the  gold,  which  remained  behind.  The 
gold  was  also  extracted  by  winnowing.  Of  late  years 
various  machines  have  been  invented  and  used  from  time 
to  time,  but  necessarily  their  application  is  limited, 

Beach-Milling. — In  various  places  along  the  Pacific 
coast,  principally  between  Cape  Mendocino  in  California 
and  the  Umpqua  River  in  Oregon,  the  beach  sands  have 
been  found  to  contain  gold  and  have  been  worked  to  a 
limited  extent.  The  first  discovery,  which  for  a  time 
caused  great  excitement,  was  made  in  1850  at  Gold  Bluff, 
south  of  the  mouth  of  the  Klamath  River. 

The  gold  occurs  in  a  finely  divided  state,  in  layers 
(sometimes  one  or  two  feet  deep)  of  magnetic  iron  sand, 
which  by  the  concentrating  action  of  the  waves  and  tide 
is  separated  from  the  lighter  quartz  sand.  By  the  wash 
of  the  water  the  auriferous  la)^ers  are  sometimes  exposed 
and  sometimes  covered  by  the  non-auriferous  material. 

With  the  gold  platinum  is  found.  The  fragments  of 
the  platinum  are  more  compact  and  less  flattened  than  the 
gold  particles,  which  are  of  leaf-like  form  and  of  nearly 
the  same  diameter  as  the  magnetic-iron  grains,  from  which 


8o  DIFFERENT   METHODS   OF    MINING. 

they  are  separated  only  with  difficulty  by  the  present  pro- 
cess of  washing. 

S.  B.  Christy  found  that  the  gold  amalgamates  easily, 
but  that  the  finer  particles,  when  once  allowed  to  dry, 
seem  to  become  covered  with  a  film  of  air  and  to  float 
readily  on  subsequent  immersion  in  water. 

Prof.  J.  D.  Dana  considers  that  these  deposits  date 
trom  the  close  of  the  Glacial,  and  partly  from  the  latter 
half  of  the  Champlain  period. 

As  the  tides  continually  alter  the  position  of  the  ex- 
posed auriferous  layers,  it  is  necessary  to  prospect  every 
day  for  the  richest  spots,  which  are  generally  covered  at 
high  water.  x\t  low  tide  the  miners  proceed  to  the  locali- 
ties selected,  scrape  up  the  thin  gold-bearing  strata,  and 
transport  the  material  to  the  washing  place.  The  wash- 
ing is  generally  done  in  sluices,  to  which  are  attached 
various  gold-saving  contrivances. 

It  is  claimed  that  much  of  the  sand  assays  from  $io  to 
$30  per  ton,  and  that  very  large  amounts  assay  from  $5  to 
$10,  only  a  part  of  which,  however,  is  saved.  Skidmore 
states  that  the  variable  character  of  the  sands  prevents 
beach-mining  enterprises  from  being  carried  on  success- 
fully for  any  length  of  time. 

Bar  and  River  Mining. — In  early  days  river-min- 
ing was  extensively  carried  on.  The  discover}^  of  rich 
bars  caused  many  excitements.  It  led  to  the  rapid  ex- 
ploration and  settlement  of  large  areas  of  country,  and 
was  generally  the  first  step  towards  opening  up  the  gold- 
mining  regions. 

The  portions  of  the  bars  above  water-level  being  soon 
exhausted,  the  miners'  attention  was  naturally  led  to  the  ex- 
ploration of  the  parts  under  water.  Streams  were  dammed 
and  turned  into  new  channels,  often  at  enormous  costs 
and  risks.  The  beds  of  rivers  for  considerable  distances 
were  laid  bare  while  the  miner  worked  his  claim.  This 
class  of  mining,  apart  from  the  danger  arising  from  floods 
and  breaking  of  dams,  had  in  it  a  factor  of  uncertainty — 


DIFFKRKXT    MKllIODS    OV    MlXIXn.  gl 

naii?ly,  the  x^aluc  of  the  ckiim,  whicii  could  only  be  ascer- 
tained after  all  the  principal  expenses  had  been  incurred. 
The  losses  in  many  instances  were  very  large,  but  in  other 
cases  the  gains  obtained  in  a  short  time  were  so  enormous 
as  to  throw  around  this  class  of  work  a  fascination  which 
induced  many  to  engage  in  it. 

To  obviate  the  necessity  of  turning  the  rivers  out  of 
their  channels  dredging  machines  have  been  built  and 
used  ;  and  the  plan  oi  sinking  shafts  on  the  banks  and  tun- 
nelling (drifting;  under  the  surface  of  the  bed  has  been  sug- 
gested. Projects  for  working  the  river  channels  (always 
supposed  to  contain  enormous  stores  of  hidden  wealth) 
are  still  proposed  from  time  to  time,  but  actual  operations 
are  not  common. 

G-round-Sluiciiig.  —  Ground-sluicing  consists  in 
treating  the  gold-bearing  gravel,  which  is  excavated  by 
pick  and  shovel,  by  washing  it  in  trenches  cut  in  the 
bed-rock.  It  is  similar  to  hydraulic  mining,  except 
that  the  water  is  not  used  under  pressure  and  often  no 
wooden  sluices  are  used  below  the  trenches,  the  rough 
natural  rock  serving  for  riffles.  The  lighter  material  is 
removed  by  means  of  the  water,  while  the  heavier  dirt 
remaining  behind  is  collected  and  worked  in  rockers. 
This  process  of  gold-washing  was  carried  on  by  the 
Romans  in  the  early  part  of  the  Christian  era. 

Booming'. — Booming  is  simply  ground-sluicing  on  a 
large  scale,  the  only  difference  being  that  instead  of  wash- 
ing the  gravel  by  means  of  a  continuous  stream  of  water, 
the  contents  of  the  entire  reservoir  are  discharged  at  once 
and  all  the  material  which  has  been  collected  below  it  is 
swept  into  the  sluices.  The  rush  of  the  water  carries  off 
the  boulders  and  dirt,  leaving  behind  the  heavy  particles 
of  gold  and  magnetic  iron  sands,  which  are  collected  on 
bed-rock  floors.  Booming  has  been  extensively  practised 
in  California,  Idaho,  Montana,  and  Colorado.  The  re- 
quirements for  this  kind  of  gold-mining  are  a  siufficiently 
large  reservoir  conveniently  situated  above  the  gravel  de- 


82  DIFFERENT    METHODS   OF    MINING. 

posit,  and  a  clam  for  storing  the  water,  so  arranged  that 
flood-gates  can  quickly  discharge  the  entire  contents  of 
the  reservoir  without  damage  to  the  dam. 

Pliny,  in  his  "  Natural  History,"  speaking  of  gold- 
washing,  says :  "  When  they  have  reached  the  head  of 
the  fall,  at  the  very  brow  of  the  mountain,  reservoirs  are 
hollowed  out  a  couple  of  hundred  feet  in  length  and 
breadth,  some  ten  feet  in  depth.  In  these  reservoirs  there 
are  generally  five  sluices  left,  about  three  feet  square,  so 
that  the  moment  the  reservoir  is  filled  the  flood-gates  are 
struck  away,  and  the  torrent  bursts  forth  with  such  a 
degree  of  violence  as  to  roll  outward  any  fragments  of 
rock  which  may  obstruct  its  passage.  When  they  have 
reached  the  level  ground,  too,  there  is  still  another  labor 
that  awaits  them  :  trenches,  known  as  '  agogse,'  have  to 
be  dug  for  the  passage  of  the  water,  and  these,  at  regu- 
lar intervals,  have  a  layer  of  silex  placed  at  the  bottom. 
This  silex  is  a  plant  like  the  rosemary  in  appearance,  rough 
and  prickly,  and  well  adapted  for  arresting  any  pieces  of 
gold  that  may  be  carried  along.  The  sides,  too,  are 
closed  in  with  planks,  and  are  supported  by  arches  when 
carried  over  steep  and  precipitous  spots.  The  earth,  car- 
ried onwards  by  the  stream,  arrives  at  the  sea  at  last,  and 
thus  is  the  shattered  mountain  washed  away — causes  which 
have  greatly  tended  to  extend  the  shores  of  Spain  by 
these  encroachments  on  the  deep." 

DEEP- MINING. 

The  two  principal  methods  of  Deep-Mining  are  Drift- 
ing and  Hydraulicking. 

Drifting. — Gold  is  often  mined  in  deep  deposits  by 
means  of  tunnels  and  drifts.  This  is  styled  drift-mining, 
which,  as  a  rule,  is  resorted  to  only  in  those  districts 
where  the  deposits  are  covered  by  an  overflow  from  vol- 
canic sources,  though  in  many  instances  the  bottom  stra- 
tum (sometimes  intermediate  strata)  has  been  drifted  out 
of  banks  not  capped  with  lava. 


DIFFERENT    METHODS   OF   MINING.  83 

Drifting  presupposes  the  concentration  of  the  precious 
metal  in  a  well  defined  stratum  or  channel.  This  method 
has  been  extensively  employed  in  many  parts  of  Califor- 
nia, particularly  in  Placer,  Sierra,  and  Plumas  counties. 

Where  a  pay  channel  has  been  found,  or  is  surmised 
to  exist,  a  tunnel  is  driven  to  develop  it.  This  tunnel 
must  be  run  in  such  a  manner  as  to  drain  all  parts  of  the 
mine,  and  its  location  is  therefore  a  matter  of  the  greatest 
importance.  Before  commencing  such  a  work,  which 
may  require  )^ears  for  its  completion  and  cost  large  sums 
of  money,  every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  ascer- 
tain the  exact  position  of  the  channel.  Want  of  know- 
ledge on  this  point  has  caused  disastrous  failures  in  but 
too  many  cases. 

As  the  channel  can  often  be  found  onl}-  by  means  of 
tunnels,  the  risk  of  undei-taking  drift-mining  is  apparent. 
In  those  fortunate  instances  in  which  the  channel  is  dis- 
closed on  the  surface  and  rises  as  it  enters  the  hill,  the 
tunnel  is  run  along  its  bed,  partially  in  the  bed-rock. 
Otherwise  the  tunnel  is  driven  below  the  channel  or 
through  the  rim-rock,  being  located  with  such  a  grade 
that  the  deepest  part  of  the  workings  will  be  above  it. 

In  some  claims  shafts  have  been  sunk  and  the  gravel 
drifted  out  has  been  raised  through  these  shafts  to  the 
surface.  This  method  is  quite  common  in  Australia,  but 
comparatively  rare  in  California. 

When  a  tunnel  has  been  properly  located  and  the 
channel  opened,  drifts  are  run  through  the  pay  ground 
on  both  sides  and  the  material  is  breasted  out  regular- 
ly, timbering  being  employed  as  the  work  may  require. 
Shafts  must  sometimes  be  raised  to  the  surface  for  the 
sake  of  ventilation. 

The  gravel  is  removed  through  the  tunnel  by  means 
of  a  tramway  and  carried  to  the  mouth,  where  it  is 
dumped  on  floors  and  then  washed  in  the  sluices.  When 
too  firmly  cemented  to  be  broken  up  by  sluicing,  the 
gravel  is  crushed  under  stamps. 


84  DIFFERENT    METHODS   OF   MINING. 

One  of  the  most  noted  drift-mines  in  tlie  State  is  the 
Bald  Mountain,  Sierra  County,  where  there  is  every  fa- 
ciUty  for  economical  working.  There  steam  locomotives 
are  used  for  transporting  men  and  material  through 
the  tunnel,  which  is  over  one  and  one-fourth  miles, 
long. 

The  following  sketches  of  the  workings  of  the  Sunny 
South  Mine,  in  Placer  County,  will  give  a  general  idea  of 
the  method  of  drift-mining.  At  this  place  the  main  tun- 
nel is  below  the  channel,  allowing  the  mine  to  be  opened 
and  worked  in  a  very  convenient  manner. 

Drifting  was  at  one  time  the  most  extensively  used 
method  of  deep  mining,  and  through  it  a  very  large 
amount  of  information  has  been  obtained  as  to  the  nature 
of  the  ancient  river  channels. 

Hydraulic  3Iiniiig. — Hydraulic  mining  is  that  meth- 
od of  gold-mining  in  which  the  ground  is  excavated  by 
means  of  water  discharged  against  it  under  pressure  (hy- 
draulicked). 

The  term  in  its  limited  sense,  as  generally  applied,  pre- 
supposes the  existence  of,  ist,  water,  in  sufficient  quan- 
tity, which  can  be  used  under  pressure  for  mining  ;  2d, 
gravel  deposits  containing  gold  which  can  be  worked  pro- 
fitably by  the  application  of  water  in  the  manner  above 
mentioned. 

Origin  in  Calilbrnia.  —  The  application  of  the 
science  of  hydraulics  to  the  mining  of  auriferous  gra- 
vels originated  in  California.  The  pressing  necessity  of 
a  more  economical  process  of  gold-washing  became  evi- 
dent as  the  rich  surface  deposits  were  exhausted,  and  led 
to  the  adoption  of  this  method,  which  was  favored  by  the 
topography  of  the  country. 

Hydraulic  V8.  Drift  Mining. — Deep  placers,  if  suflfi- 
cientl}'  rich,  can  be,  and  for  various  reasons  generally  are, 
worked  by  drifting.  But  the  results  of  actual  practice 
in  Nevada  County  and  elsewhere  demonstrate  that  hy- 
draulic   mining,  compared  with    drifting,  employs  twice 


DIFFERENT   METHODS   OF    MINING. 


85 


CROSS  SECTION 


^    JZ    Zm 

c3  a  u 
!c  so 


mmm 


\y^-^:X/</'^'>///^/ 


86  DIFFERENT   METHODS   OF    MINING. 

the  number  of  men  and  extracts  four  to  six  times  the 
amount  of  gold  per  lineal  foot  of  channel. 

The  yield  of  the  North  Bloomfield  channel  by  drifting 
has  been  $150  per  lineal  foot  of  channel,  while  hydraulick- 
ing  the  entire  deposit  in  this  locality  has  given  a  yield  of 
$750  per  foot. 

Requirements  for  Financial  Success. — From  a 
financial  point  of  view  it  is  essential  for  profitable  hy- 
draulic mining  that  there  should  be  ample  facilities  for 
grade  and  dump  and  a  sufficient  head  and  an  abundant 
supply  of  cheap  water,  all  of  which  requirements  vary  in 
importance  inversely  with  the  richness  and  extent  of  the 
gravel.  Economical  management  may  be  considered  in 
all  classes  of  mining,  a  sine  qua  iion  to  success;  but  it  is 
especially  requisite  here,  as  the  value  of  this  method  is 
based  on  the  great  facility  with  which  profitable  results 
can  be  obtained  at  trifling  cost  from  expeditiously  and 
skilfully  washing  vast  areas  of  ground  which  contain  rela- 
tively insignificant  amounts  of  precious  metal. 

Strictly  speaking,  in  hydraulic  mining,  water  does  all 
the  work,  but  in  the  application  of  this  process  to  the 
washing  of  cemented  gravel  and  masses  of  volcanic  pro- 
ducts, it  has  been  found  that  water  alone  has  little  effect 
on  banks  composed  of  such  material,  and  to  overcome 
this  difficultv  recourse  is  had  to  blasting  in  order  to 
shatter  the  bank  before  water  can  be  advantageously  em- 
ployed. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
PRELIMINARY  INVESTIGATIONS. 

In  the  investigation  of  all  hydraulic-mining  enterprises 
the  first  problem  which  presents  itself  to  the  engineer  is 
the  ascertaining  of  the  value  of  the  gravel  deposits.  This 
involves  the  determining  of  the  course  of  the  channel ; 
the  depth  and  position  of  the  bed-rock,  generall}^  covered 
by  hundreds  of  feet  of  detritus ;  the  available  area  for 
washing ;  and  the  estimates  of  the  3neld  of  the  ground, 
with  the  calculations  of  the  cost  of  the  work.  Accurate 
information  on  these  points  is  necessar}-.  But  without 
the  assistance  of  underground  explorations  few  of  them 
can  be  definitely  determined.  A  study  of  the  geology 
and  topography  of  the  deposit  and  of  its  surroimdings 
aids  in  determining  the  course  of  the  channel,  the  depth 
of  the  bed-rock,  and  the  facilities  for  dump.  The  value 
of  the  gravel  can  be  approximated  by  sinking  small  pits, 
washing  the  material  obtained  from  them  and  from  such 
other  places  as  good  judgment  dictates. 

Where  the  prosecution  of  an  enterprise  involves  the 
expenditure  of  large  sums,  it  is  advisable  to  thoroughly 
explore  the  ground  by  means  of  prospecting  shafts  and 
drifts.  Should  the  results  of  this  work  warrant  the  opin- 
ion that  the  ground  would  pay  to  hydraulic,  then  the 
water-supply  and  the  facilities  for  dump  should  be  accu- 
rately determined,  with  close  estimates  of  the  costs. 

Indications. — The  colors  red  and  blue,  with  their 
varying  shades,  as  seen  in  gravel  deposits,  are  generallv 
considered  by  miners  to  be  good  indications  of  gold  in  the 
different  localities.  While  it  is  true  that  these  different 
colored  sands  often  accompany  gold,  it  by  no  means  fol- 
lows that  gold  always  accompanies  them. 

Ferruginous  colored  spots,  so  well  marked  in  "  upper 
or  top  gravel,"  are  not,  as  a  rule,  so  productive  of  gold  in 

87 


88  PRELIMINARY    INVESTIGATIONS. 

California  as  they  are  generally  found  to  be  in  the  Ural 
Mountains. 

A  black  sand,  composed  chiefly  of  glancing  grains  of 
magnetic  iron,  generally  accompanies  the  precious  metal, 
though  it  occurs  also  without  it. 

Dr.  T.  Sterry  Hunt,  speaking  of  the  impressions  which 
prevail  in  reference  to  the  presence  of  black  sand  in  auri- 
ferous alluvions,  very  appropriately  remarks  that  "  similar 
black  sand  residues,  consisting  chiefly  of  various  ores  of 
iron  (sometimes  oxide  of  tin  and  other  minerals),  may  be 
obtained  from  the  washing  of  almost  all  sands  and  gra- 
vels derived  from  crystalline  rocks,  and  the  occurrence  of  a 
black  sand,  therefore,  in  no  way  indicates  the  presence  of 
gold.  When,  however,  this  metal  is  present  in  gravel, 
it,  from  its  great  weight,  remains  behind  with  the  black 
sand  and  dense  matters  in  the  residue  after  washing."  * 

Explorations  at  Malakotf. — The  explorations  of 
the  North  Bloomfield  Company  furnish  a  remarkable 
instance  of  the  extent  to  which  preliminary  work  has 
been  successfully  carried  on.  To  determine  the  value  of 
their  claims  and  the  feasibility  of  working  them,  four 
prospect  shafts  were  sunk  to  ascertain  the  value  of  the 
gravel,  the  position  of  the  channel,  and  the  depth  to  the 
bed-rock.  No.  i  shaft  struck  the  bed-rock  of  the  main 
channel  at  a  depth  of  two  hundred  and  seven  feet,  one 
hundred  and  thirty-five  feet  of  which  was  in  blue  gra- 
vel averaging  41  cents  per  cubic  yard.  Drifts  were 
driven  from  the  bottom  of  this  shaft  a  distance  of  twelve 
hundred  feet  on  the  course  of  the  channel,  the  width  of 
which  was  estimated  at  five  hundred  feet.  The  ag- 
gregate length  of  the  channel  explorations  was  over  two 
thousand  feet.  The  samples  of  the  various  drifts  indicat- 
ed a  value  of  $2.01  per  cubic  yard.  The  actual  yield  of 
21,614  tons  of  gravel  extracted  from  these  drifts  was  $33,- 
053.69,  or  $1.53  per  ton,  or  about  $2.75  per  cubic  yard. 

The  gross  cost  of  the  entire  prospecting  work,  includ* 
ing  the  four  shafts,  was  $63,956.20. 

•  "  Geological  Survey  of  Canada,  Report  of  Progress,  1863-66,"  p.  36. 


PRELIMINARY    INVESTIGATIONS. 


89 


SECTION  OF  SHAFT  NO.  1. 

MALAKOFF 

North  bloomfield  gravel  mining  co. 


Piiii* 


lis 


■ 


130-| ';  •  /, 
Figures  within  the  Shaft 
indicate  the  number  of 
colors  to  the  pan,  every  testllO^ 
made  from  120  down  ia 
here  recorded. 


150- 


200 1 


fulor  found  in  most  every  pan 
in  this  top  graveL 


GooJ  gravel. 


Blue  Gravel:  from  top  down  for  50  feeC 
averaged  about  10  colors  to  the  pan. 


Streaks  of  Clay  through 
Gravel,  thickest  8  inches. 

( ■•.>ltl  very  fine  until  green  gravel  was  i^acb 

Here  soft  and  sandy, 

Muth  (quartz. 

i'ipe  clay  disappeared. 

Here  appeared  a  little  Cement. 


Gravel  coarser,  some  Cement. 

<.<>jld  coarser  since  striking  green  Gravel* 


Here  much  Cement 


Thiu  strata  of  sand 


Fig.  2. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

RESERVOIRS  AND  DAMS. 
STORAGE   RESERVOIRS. 

Sources  of  Water-Supply. — ^Running  streams,  melt- 
ing snows  and  rains  are  the  sources  from  which  the  min- 
ing districts  derive  their  water-supply.  The  altitudes  of 
the  gravel  deposits,  two  hundred  to  fifty-five  hundred 
feet  above  the  sea-level,  necessitate  the  bringing  of  the 
water  from  still  greater  elevations  nearer  the  sources  of 
the  streams.  The  supply  from  these  streams  is  not  always 
sulftcient.  Towards  the  end  of  winter  and  during  the 
spring  months,  while  the  mountains  are  still  covered  with 
deep  snow,  rains  and  temperate  weather  cause  sudden 
and  rapid  thawing,  and  enormous  volumes  of  water  are 
then  discharged  from  the  many  water-sheds  on  the  west 
flank  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  into  the  Great  Valley  of  Cali- 
fornia, and  freshets  are  of  quite  common  occurrence.  To 
make  this  supply  of  water  available,  storage  reservoirs 
have  been  constructed  by  some  of  the  large  hydraulic- 
mining  companies. 

The  dry  season  in  California  is  from  May  to  Novem- 
ber, but  the  streams  do  not  run  dry  until  the  middle  of 
June  or  July. 

Requirements  for  Sites. — The  principal  storage 
reservoirs  in  the  State  are  situated  at  elevations  of  five 
thousand  to  seven  thousand  feet  above  the  sea-level.  The 
location  of  a  proper  site  for  a  storage  reservoir  is  of  para- 
mount importance.  Tn  selecting  a  site  especial  attention 
must  be  paid  to  the  following  points: 

(i)  A  proper  elevation. 


RESERVOIRS.  9I 

(2)  The  water-supply  from  all  creeks  and  springs,  and 
the  catchment  area. 

(3)  The  amount  of  rain  and  snowfall. 

(4)  The  formation  and  character  of  the  ground,  with 
especial  reference  to  the  amount  of  absorption  and  eva- 
poration. 

All  of  these  points  must  be  thoroughly  investigated  and 
determined.  It  is  supposed  that  the  catchment  area  has 
been  ascertained,  and  that  it  is  sufficiently  large  for  its 
minimum  discharge  to  supply  all  requirements. 

Elevation. — The  elevation  of  a  reservoir  depends 
upon  the  location  of  the  mines  and  the  altitude  and  ex- 
tent of  the  country  which  it  is  proposed  to  cover  with  the 
ditch.  The  reservoir  should  be  located  below  the  snow 
belt  wherever  possible,  and  so  situated  as  to  obtain  the 
largest  water-supply  from  the  catchment  area. 

Streams. — All  the  streams  should  be  gauged  carefully 
to  determine  the  minimum  and  the  average  supply. 

Rainfall. — In  new  and  unexplored  localities  the  wa- 
ter-supply due  to  rainfall  can  be  determined  only  by  ac- 
tual measurement.  It  cannot  be  too  earnestly  impressed 
upon  the  engineer  that  for  all  such  information  he  must 
depend  on  his  own  observations,  which  in  some  cases  may 
require  a  prolonged  stav  of  a  season  or  more  in  the'  field. 
Under  any  circumstances  rainfall  data  cannot  be  relied 
upon,  unless  based  on  many  decades  of  observation. 

The  rainfall  is  always  greater  in  mountain  districts 
than  in  the  lowlands.  It  is  greatest  on  the  slopes  facing 
the  direction  from  which  the  moist  winds  blow.  Definite 
data  of  the  rainfall  of  any  catchment  area  can  be  obtained 
only  by  establishing  rain  gauges  at  different  points,  where 
the  observations  should  be  made  daily  during  the  season. 

Snowfall. — The  measurement  of  the  snowfall  must 
be  taken  on  a  level,  and  a  given  amount  of  snow  reduced 
to  water  and  calculated  for  rain. 

Absorption  and  Evaporation.  —  In  reference  to 
the  ground,  the  most  desirable  formation  is  that  of  com- 


92  RESERVOIRS. 

pact  rocks,  like  granite,  gneiss,  or  slates.  Localities  where 
the  formation  consists  of  porous  rocks,  sandstones  or 
limestones,  are  not  desirable  on  account  of  the  great  loss 
from  absorption. 

Steep  and  denuded  slopes  are  always  the  best,  as  but 
little  water  will  escape.  The  greatest  slope  will  give  the 
largest  available  quantity  of  water.  The  configuration 
of  the  ground  influences  and  affects  evaporation,  and 
vegetation  causes  a  large  amount  of  absorption.  The 
losses  due  to  absorption  and  evaporation  are  reduced  to  a 
minimum  where  the  site  of  a  reservoir  is  in  a  compact 
formation  with  steep  sides,  and  the  surface  area  is  conse- 
quently small.  Evaporation  varies  with  the  season  of  the 
year  and  the  weather  (being  most  active  in  summer),  while 
percolation,  depending  on  the  soil,  varies  from  3'ear  to 
year.  Percolation  is  greatest  during  melting  of  snows, 
and  especially  when  a  thaw  follows  small  falls  of  snow. 
From  reliable  experiments  made  in  France  and  England, 
the  ratio  of  evaporation  to  rainfall  was  determined  (1839 
to  1852)  in  the  former  to  have  been  76.57  per  cent.,  and  in 
the  latter,  subsequentl}^  77. 27  per  cent.* 

Finally,  it  must  be  added  that  the  rule  for  estimating 
the  total  quantity  available  for  storage  varies  in  different 
districts.  In  some  localities  two-thirds  of  the  total  amount 
is  estimated  to  be  serviceable,  and  in  others  one-third. 
At  the  Bowman  reservoir  75  per  cent,  of  the  total  ramfall 
and  snowfall,  reduced  to  rain,  is  stored. 

Reservoir  Gauge. — In  the  construction  of  reservoirs 
the  location  selected  must  be  sufficiently  large  to  hold 
a  supply  necessary  to  meet  a  maximum  demand.  The 
exact  area  of  the  reservoir  should  be  determined,  and  a 
table  showing  its  contents  for  every  foot  of  depth  made,  so 
that,  from  an  inspection  of  the  gauge  and  reference  to  the 
table,  the  amount  of  water  available  for  service  can  always 
be  known.  A  longitudinal  section  through  the  centre  ot 
the  reservoir,  with  cross-sections  and  contour  lines,  five 

*  Harcourt,  "  Rivers  and  Canals,"  p.  3. 


RESERVOIRS.  93 

feet  above  each  other  vertically,  will  enable  the  engineer 
to  determine  the  height  of  the  dam  and  to  ascertain  the 
contents  of  the  reservoir  with  the  water  at  any  depth. 

Reservoir  Statistics.— On  the  head-waters  of  one 
of  the  branches  of  the  Yuba  River  in  Nevada  County, 
at  an  elevation  of  fifty-three  hundred  feet  above  sea-level, 
the  North  Bloomfield  Company  has  established  a  com- 
plete system  ot  reservoirs  for  the  storage  of  water.  Their 
Bowman  reservoir  and  the  small  ones  above  it  contain 
about  1,050,000,000  cubic  feet  of  water.  The  catchment 
area  is  28.94  square  miles.  The  cost  of  the  reservoirs  and 
dams  to  date  is  $246,707.51,  including  the  cost  of  distribut- 
ing reservoirs. 

The  Rudyard  or  English  reservoir  of  the  Milton  Com- 
pany since  its  enlargement  contains  650,000,000  cubic  feet 
of  water,  havnng  a  high- water  area  of  395  acres,  fed  from 
a  catchment  basin  of  12.1  square  miles.  The  reservoir  is 
formed  by  three  dams.  The  back  wall  of  the  centre  dam 
has  a  vertical  height  <3f  one  hundred  and  thirty-one  feet. 
The  walls  are  of  dry  rubble  stone  covering  a  solidly 
filled  timber  crib.  The  total  cost  of  the  reservoir  to 
date  is  $155,000. 

The  storage  reservoirs  of  the  Eureka  Lake  and  Yuba 
Canal.  Company  consist  of  the  French  reservoir,  661,000,- 
000  cubic  feet  capacitv,  area  337.32  acres ;  Weaver  Lake 
reservoir,  100,000,000  cubic  feet  capacity ;  and  Faucherie 
reservoir,  58,800,000  cubic  feet  capacity,  high-water  area 
90  acres ;  having,  therefore,  an  aggregate  capacitv  oi 
819,800,000  cubic  feet  of  water.*  The  catchment  basins 
of  most  of  these  reservoirs' are  in  a  rugged,  mountainous 
region,  and  in  ordinary  seasons  60  to  80  per  cent,  of  the 
rain  and  snow  fall  flows  into  the  reservoirs. 

Distributing  Reservoirs. — Independent  of  these 
reservoirs,  all  mines, .  at  convenient  distances  from  their 
works,  have  what  are  called  distributing  reservoirs,  which 
receive  the  water  from  the  main  ditch  for  delivery  to  the 

*  See  report  of  J.  D.  Hague,  M.E.,  pp.  15,  i6,  and  17. 


94 


RESERVOIRS. 


individual  claims.  These  reservoirs  are  usually  small, 
containing  only  sufficient  water  for  a  few  hours'  or  a  few 
days'  run. 

The  principal  distributing  reservoirs  in  the  mining  dis- 
tricts of  California  are  : 

Waldron,  N.  Bloomtield  Mining  Co 5,352,000  cubic  feet. 

Marlow.  N.  Bloomfield  Mining  Co 1,734,000  cubic  feet. 

Pine  Grove,  Milton  Mining  Co 11,150,000  cubic  feet. 

Empire,  Milton  Mining  Co   2,230,000  cubic  feet. 

Excelsior  No.  i.  Excelsior  Mining  Co 15,610,000  cubtc  feet. 

Excelsior  No.  2,  Excelsior  Mining  Co 6,690,000  cubic  feet. 

DAMS. 

Dams  arc  required  for  the  purpose  of  impounding 
water  in  reservoirs,  for  diverting  it  from  streams,  or  for 
storing  in  the  canons  or  elsewhere  the  debris  coming 
from  the  mines. 

Foundation.— The  first  object  sought  in  selecting  a 
site  is  a  foundation  sufficientl}^  solid  and  impervious  to 
prevent  settling  of  the  dam,  leakage  under  its  base,  and 
wear  in  front  by  water  running  over  its  top.  Where  pos- 
sible the  entire  foundation  should  be  in  solid  rock. 

A  hard,  level,  compact  rock  always  affords  the  best 
foundation,  but  where  that  cannot  be  obtained  any  thick, 
impermeable  stratum  strong  enough  to  sustain  the  pres- 
sure will  suffice.  Gravel  soil  is  better  than  earth,  but  re- 
quires sheet  piling  to  prevent  sipage  beneath  the  base  of 
the  dam.  No  reliance  can  be  placed  on  vegetable  soil. 
In  India,  where  it  is  impracticable  to  go  down  to  the 
bed-rock,  stone  wells  filled  with  concrete  and  connected 
by  rows  of  piles  have  been  used. 

In  preparing  the  foundation  the  soil  and  all  porous 
material,  sand  and  gravel,  is  stripped  off,  and  when  the 
solid  gi-ound  is  reached  it  should  be  carefully  and  thor- 
oughly tested  by  shafts  or  borings.  Where  the  rock  is  fis- 
sured all  loose  material  should  be  removed  ;  some  engineers 
recommend  covering  the  foundation  with  a  layer  of  pud- 


RESERVOIRS. 


95 


TABLE    II. 

RESERVOIRS 

on  the  Yuba.,  Bear^  Feather,  and  American  Rivers,  constructed  for 
mining  purposes. 


Name. 

Owner. 

Capacity  in  cubic 
feet. 

Bowman 

North  Bloom  field  Co. . . 

U                          <(                     1< 

l<                  l(              <( 
<(                  ((              i( 
II                  II              l< 

Eureka  Lake  Co 

II         <<       i( 

<i         II       11 
II         <i       11 
II         II       II 

Milton  Co 

930,000,000 

3.423,816 

23.027,558 

2,395.800 

2,907,630 

150,000,000 

661,000,000 

58,800,000 

15,000,000 

50,000,000 

650,000,000 

1,075.525.000 

107,950,000 

53,975,000 

300,000,000 

600,000,000 

1,070,000,000 

700,000,000 

Shot  Giifi  Lake 

Isla7id  Lake 

Middle  Lake 

Hound  Lake 

Weaver  Lake 

Eureka  Lake 

Faucherie 

Jackson  Lake 

Smaller  Lakes 

Fnglish 

Fordyce 

South  Yuba  Co 

II         <i     i( 

II         i(     i( 

Blue  Tent  Co 

California  Co 

Meadow  Lake 

Sterling 

Omega  and  Blue  Tent. . 
California 

El  Dorado 

Smaller  reservoirs  on  the 
Feather,    Yuba,    and 
American  rivers 

Total  storage 

6,454,004,804 

Note. — The  capacities  of  the  reservoirs  whose  names  are  given  in  iiaUcs  arc  derived  from 
official  sources.  The  capacities  of  the  other  reservoirs  are  given  on  the  authority  of  Hamilton 
Smith,  Jr. 


96  DAMS. 

die  rammed  solidly,  which  is  torn  off  afterwards,  bringing 
with  it  all  the  loose  pieces  of  rock. 

Where  a  hard-pan  bottom  is  used  great  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  crack  it.  Fanning  recommends  in  such  cases 
that  the  soil  should  be  carefully  removed  down  to  the  im- 
pervious stratum,  on  which  a  puddle  of  well  rammed  clay, 
rolled  with  not  less  than  a  two-ton  weight,  should  be 
placed,  and  a  puddle  wall  built.  He  also  suggests  the 
covering  of  the  ground  in  front  with  a  layer  of  gravel 
and  clay,  and  at  the  toe  of  the  inside  face  of  the  dam 
sheet  piling  should  be  driven  through  the  hard-pan  to 
prevent  any  leakage  under  the  base  of  the  structure, 
which  must  be  water-tight  and  have  a  strong  apron 
placed  in  front  of  it  to  prevent  the  water  from  scouring 
the  bed. 

Wooden  Dams. — On  light  soil,  where  there  is  dan- 
ger of  undermining  from  the  overflow,  wooden  dams  can 
be  built  in  step  form  (i  vertical  to  3  or  4  horizontal) 
and  provided  with  aprons ;  sometimes  the  aprons  are 
inclined  towards  the  dam,  against  which  their  lower  ends 
abut,  while  at  the  further  end  sheet  piling  is  driven 
and  the  bed  around  it  protected  with  rip-rap.  The  same 
object  is  accomplished  likewise  by  two  dams  erected  a 
short  distance  apart,  the  lower  one  forming  a  pool  or 
water-cushion  for  the  discharge  from  the  upper  one. 

There  are  various  forms  of  wooden  dams.  They  are 
generally  constructed  of  round  logs  or  hewn  timber  one 
to  two  feet  in  diameter,  laid  on  each  other  so  as  to  form 
in  plan  a  series  of  cribs  from  eight  to  ten  feet  square, 
and  pinned  together  by  wooden  treenails.  In  the  bet- 
ter class  of  crib-work  the  timbers  are  notched  and  bolted 
to  each  other  at  each  intersection  with  iron  drift  bolts, 
the  round  logs  being  flattened  or  notched  where  they  lie 
upon  each  other.  The  bottom  timbers  are  bolted  to  the 
bed-rock,  the  ties  are  notched  and  bolted  to  the  stringers, 
and  the  cribs  are  filled  with  rock.  The  face  of  the  dam 
is  made  water-tight  by  an  outer  skin  of  plank  spiked  to 


DAMS.  97 

the  face  ribs.  These  planks  are  fitted  with  an  outgauge 
or  battened  or  otherwise  calked. 

Abutiuents. — Where  abutnlents  are  used  they  should 
be  constructed  so  as  not  to  contract  the  width  of  the 
stream.  They  must  be  securely  connected  to  the  ends  of 
the  dam,  and,  if  possible,  carried  so  far  inland  that  high 
water  cannot  sweep  around  them  ;  they  must  be  sunk 
deep  and  protected  from  all  action  of  the  water,  and  the 
ends  adjacent  to  the  dam  should  be  rounded.  They  are 
constructed  of  stone  or  cement,  or  are  built  of  timber  cribs. 

3Iasoiiry  Dams. — Hydraulic  mining  from  its  nature 
does  not  justify  the  expense  of  masonr}^  dams,  unless 
perhaps  the  reservoirs  are  designed  also  for  other  and 
more  permanent  uses.  The  subject  of  the  construction 
of  masonry  dams  has  been  thoroughly  investigated  b}' 
engineers.  The  annexed  profile  (Fig.  3),  the  bounding 
lines  of  which  are  logarithmic  curves,  has  been  calculated 
by  Prof.  Rankine  to  serve  as  a  type  for  masonry  dams  of 
any  practicable  height.  "  It  presents  many  strong  points 
not  found  in  the  usual  rectilinear  profile,  and  deserves 
especial  consideration." 

The  most  desirable  form  of  profile  for  masonry  dams 
is  the  one  which  combines  the  greatest  strength  with  the 
least  amount  of  material.  To  determine  this  it  is  nec- 
essary to  know  the  forces  to  which  the  proposed  dam 
is  to  be  subjected,  whether  constant  or  variable,  and 
the  effects  they  are  likely  to  produce.  The  conditions  of 
stability  (that  the  dam  may  sustain  its  own  weight  and 
withstand  both  its  own  weight  and  the  pressure  of  the 
water)  are  then  considered,  and  the  profile  adopted  which, 
combines  the  greatest  strength  and  stability  with  economy 
of  material. 

The  weight  of  the  material  composing  the  structure, 
and  the  pressure  or  thrust  of  the  water  which  it  holds, 
are  the  only  forces  which  may  be  regarded  as  acting 
with  vigor  on  a  dam.  The  former  is  constant ;  the  latter 
depends  on  the  height  of  the  water  behind  the  dam,  and 


98 


DAMS. 


is  consequently  variable.  The  thrust  at  any  point  acts 
normally  to  the  immersed  surface,  and  is  not  uniformly 
distributed  over  the  entire  face,  being  zero  at  the  water- 
line  and  greatest  at  the  foot  of  the  dam. 


30     20     10      0  30  euFeet 

Fig.  3.     Sfxtion  of  Dam.     Proposed  by  W.  J.  M.  Rankine,  Esq. 

A  dam  may  yield  by  sliding  on  its  base  or  at  any  hori- 
zontal joint,  or  by  rotation  about  the  toe. 

In  masonry  dams  the  weight  of  the  dam  acting  verti- 
cally, and  the  pressure  of  the  water  acting  in  directions 
normal  to  the  surface  immersed,  are  the  two  components 
of  a  resultant,  and   stability  will    be   secured    when  this 


DAMS.  99 

resultant  pierces  the  base  or  any  horizontal  joint  within 
certain  defined  limits.  If  the  line  of  the  resultant  inter- 
sects any  horizontal  plane  of  the  dam  outside  of  these 
limits,  stability  is  not  assured. 

The  following  conditions  are  indispensable  for  the 
stability  of  dams : 

1st.  The  courses  of  masonry  must  be  incapable  of 
slipping  one  over  the  other,  and  the  wall  incapable  of 
sliding  on  its  base. 

2d.  Neither  the  material  employed  nor  the  foundation 
must  be  required  to  bear  too  great  a  pressure. 

The  stones  must  not  be  laid  in  horizontal  courses  ex- 
tending from  front  to  rear,  and  binders  should  be  freely 
used.  The  stability  of  all  dams  (or  walls  sustaining  pres- 
sure) requires  that  there  should  be  no  continuous  joints. 

Earthen  Dtiins. — For  reservoirs  of  moderate  depth 
earthen  dams  are  frequently  used.  Experience  sanctions 
for  these  dimensions  not  less  than  ten  feet  on  top,  and  a 
height  of  over  sixty  feet  is  considered  risky  by  many 
engineers.  Trautwine  suggests  that  in  properly  con- 
structed earthen  dams  "  the  top  width  should  be  equal  to 
two  feet  plus  twice  the  square  root  of  the  height  in  feet." 
The  inner  slope  should  be  2^  (base)  to  i  (height),  and 
the  outer  slope  1%  to  i.  Flat  inner  slopes  are  most 
desirable,  as  they  increase  the  stability  of  the  structure 
and  likewise  prevent  displacement  of  the  pitching.  In 
some  instances  the  toes  of  the  slopes  abut  against  retain- 
ing walls  in  cement.  The  inner  slopes  should  be  care- 
fully faced  up  to  the  top  with  dry  rubble-stone  pitching  at 
least  one  and  one-half  feet  deep. 

The  Pillarcitos  reservoir,  San  Mateo  County,  has  an 
earthen  dam  six  hundred  and  forty  feet  long,  twenty-six 
feet  wide  on  top,  and  ninety-five  feet  high.  The  San 
Andreas  dam  is  six  hundred  and  forty  feet  long,  twenty- 
five  feet  wide  on  top,  and  ninety-five  feet  high.  The 
former  has  a  slope  of  2^  (base)  to  i  (height)  on  the  inner, 
and   2%  to   I   on  the  outer  side.     In  the  latter  the  inner 


lOO  DAMS. 

slope  is  2)^2  to  I,  and  the  outer  slope  is  3  to  i.  In  both 
cases  the  puddle  walls  have  been  carried  down  respec- 
tively forty-six  and  forty-seven  feet  deeper  than  the  base. 

The  materials  selected  for  the  embankment  play  a 
very  important  part.  The  best  combination  consists  of 
gravel,  sharp  sand,  and  clay,  properly  proportioned,- 
which  give  weight,  cohesiveness,  stability,  and  imper- 
viousness.*  The  weight  of  the  wall  must  be  opposed  to 
the  thrust,  the  height  and  length  are  determined  quan- 
tities, and  the  thickness  is  the  only  remaining  factor  for 
adjustment. 

Puddle  Walls. — Engineers  differ  in  opinion  as  to  the 
value  of  puddle  walls.  They  are  designed  to  prevent 
leakage  through  or  beneath  the  embankment  and  reach 
from  the  top  to  below  the  base.  They  should  be  from 
six  to  eight  feet  thick  on  top,  increasing  downwards  by 
offsets  at  the  rate  of  about  one  foot  for  every  three  or 
four  in  depth. 

Where  the  embankment  is  composed  of  loose  material 
and  the  water  comes  in  contact  with  the  clay  puddle,  it  is 
advisable  to  enclose  the  puddle  in  concrete,  or  a  water- 
tight wall  should  intervene  between  the  puddle  and  the 
reservoir. 

A  properly  constructed  embankment,  with  the  inner 
slope  and  the  bottom  of  the  reservoir,  especially  near  the 
toe,  securely  protected  by  means  of  puddle,  concrete,  or 
stone  facing  laid  in  cement,  is  considered  by  some  en- 
gineers preferable  to  a  puddle  wall  in  the  centre  of  the 
dam. 

Shrinkage  of  Embaiiknieiits. — The  following  are 
the  approximate  averages  of  the  shrinkage  of  embank- 
ments according  to  Trautwine  (1882,  p.  630) : 

Gravel  or  sand 8  per  cent. 

Clay lo  per  cent. 

Loam 12  per  cent. 

Loose  vegetable  surface  soil 15  per  cent. 

Puddle  clay 20  per  cent. 

*  See  Fanning,  "  Water-Supply  Engineering,"  pp.  339-342. 


DAMS. 


lOI 


Trautvvine  determined  that  one  cubic  yard  of  hard 
rock  made  on  an  averag-e  17  cubic  yards  of  embankment, 
or  that  one  cubic  yard  of  rock  embankment  required 
0.5882  of  a  cubic  yard  in  place.  Also  that  a  solid  cubic 
yard  when  broken  into  fragments  made  1.9  cubic  yards  of 
loose  heap,  if  yards  carelessly  piled,  1.6  cubic  yards 
carefully  piled,  1.5  cubic  yards  very  carelessly  scabbled, 
or  li  cubic  yards  somewhat  carefully  scabbled. 

Dams  in  California. — Among  the  most  important 
dams  built  in  California  are  :  the  Bowman  dam,  height 
one  hundred  feet,  length  four  hundred  and  twenty-five 


Fig.  4.     Dry-stone  Dam. 

feet ;  three  dams  owned  by  the  Milton  Mining  and  Water 
Company,  forming  the  English  reservoir,  the  largest  of 
these  having  a  height  of  one  hundred  and  thirty -one  feet; 
the  Fordyce,  of  the  South  Yuba  Canal  Company,  five  hun- 
dred and  sixty-seven  feet  long  and  seventv-five  feet  high, 
catchment  basin  about  forty  square  miles  ;  the  Eureka 
Lake  dam  of  the  Eureka  Lake  and  Yuba  Canal  Company, 
length  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  height  sixtv-eight  feet. 


102 


DAMS. 


TABLE   III. 
Angles  of  Repose  and  jFrictioti  of  Embankment  Materials* 


Material. 


Dry  sand,  fine 

"         "      coarse 

Damp  clay 

Wet  clay 

Clayey  gravel 

Shingle 

Gravel 

Firm  loam 

Vegetable  soil. 

Peat 

Masonry  on  clayey  gravel. . 

"    dry  clay 

"  "   moist  clay 

Earth  on  moist  clay 

"       "    wet  clay. 


Angle  of 
Repose. 

Coefficient 
of  Friction. 

28° 

•532 

30° 

•577 

45° 

1. 000 

15° 

.268 

45° 

1. 000 

42° 

.900 

38° 

.781 

36° 

•727 

35° 

.700 

20° 

.364 

30° 

•577 

27° 

•510 

18° 

•325 

45° 

1. 000 

17° 

.306 

Ratio  of  Slope. 


Hor.       Vert. 

1.88  to 


73 


73 


I. II 

1.28 
1-38 
^•43 
2^75 
1-73 
1.96 
3.08 
1. 00 
3.26 


*  See  "Treatise  on  Water-Supply  Engineering,"  by  J.  T.  Fanning,  p.  345. 


DAMS.  103 

All  the  foregoing  dams  are  built  of  dry  rubble  stone 
and  faced  with  a  water-tight  lining  of  planks. 

The  Tuolumne  County  Water  Company  has  built  seve- 
ral timber  crib  dams,  the  largest  of  which  is  across  the 
south  fork  of  the  Stanislaus  River.  This  dam,  which  is 
three  hundred  feet  long  and  sixty  feet  high,  rests  for  its  en- 
tire base  on  solid  granite  bed-rock.  The  cribs,  construct- 
ed of  round  tamarack  logs  from  two  to  three  feet  in  di- 
ameter, are  about  eight  feet  square  from  log  to  log  (ten 
feet  centre  to  centre),  and  the  timbers  are  pinned  together 
with  wooden  treenails.     The  cribs  have  no  rock  filling. 

The  face  is  formed  of  flattened  three-inch  timber  pinned 
with  wooden  treenails  to  the  crib  and  calked  with  cedar 
bark.  The  flood  water  passes  over  the  crest  of  the  dam 
for  the  entire  length.  The  water  is  drawn  off  by  several 
gates,  one  above  the  other,  placed  on  the  inclined  water- 
face.  The  dam  was  built  in  1856.  Its  total  cost  did  not 
exceed  $40,000.  Pine  dams  owned  b}^  this  company,  con- 
structed on  the  same  plan,  have  decayed,  while  cedar  cribs 
are  still  in  perfect  order.  The  Spring  Valley  and  Che- 
rokee Company's  Concow  reservoir  in  Butte  County  is 
formed  by  two  earthen  dams,  each  about  fifty-five  feet  in 
height ;  one  of  these,  which  is  used  as  a  waste;  has  its  lower 
side  built  of  heavy  brush  embedded  in  the  earth. 

THE   BOWMAN    RESERVOIR  AND   DAM. 

This  reservoir  was  designed  for  the  supply  of  water 
during  the  dry  season  of  the  year  to  the  gravel  mines  ope- 
rated by  the  North  Bloomfield  Mining  Company.  It  is 
located  in  a  mountain  valle}^  on  Big  Caiion  Creek,  a 
branch  of  the  Yuba  River. 

It  is  fed  from  a  gross  catchment  area  of  2S.94  square 
miles.  Higher  up  on  the  same  stream  there  are  several 
other  reservoirs  owned  by  the  Bloomfield  and  Eureka  Lake 
companies,  the  upper  one  (Eureka  Lake  reservoir)  hold- 
ing 661,000,000  cubic  feet  of  water.     In  ordinary  seasons 


I04 


DAMS. 


TABLE   IV. 

So7ne  of  the  Principal  Dams  in  California. 


1             / 

rt  ^ 

.i 

on. 
I. 

^i 

'S 

c 

?S    '      Si! 

Name. 

Owner. 

txfl 

0. 

0. 

^ 

rem 
lev; 

Itch 

A: 

0 

0 

0 

rafcd    1      " 

S 

H 

H 

0 

«        ,     " 

A  cres. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet.     Acres. 

Bowman 

North       Bloom- 

field  Co 

500 

100 

425 

$151,521 

5,45012,093 

Saw  Mill  Flat. 

North       Bloom- 

§.^ 

field  Co 

80A 

mh 

T3    ? 

5,780     .... 

Shot  Gun  Lake 

North       Bloom- 

<u  Z. 

1 

. 

field  Co 

26A 

10 

6,410     

Island          " 

North       Bloom- 

a  ^ 

field  Co 

481^0 

1 2 1^0 

X  T3 
(U    c 

6,690 

Middle 

North       Bloom- 

j     ^  rt 
!      Cm 

field  Co 

"A 

12 

§§     • 

6,460     .  .  .  .    1 

Crooked     " 

North       Bloom- 

E-SS 

field  Co 

lOro 

3 

total  a 
1  these 
$246,0 

6,510 

.... 

Round        " 

North       Bloom- 

field  Co 

8A 

II 

6,590 

Fall  Creek..  . 

North       Bloom- 

4)  -5    tfl 

field  Co 

6,690     .... 

English    

Milton  M.  Co.. 

395 

131 

331 

$155,000* 

6,140    7,745 

Milton  Dam.  . 

Milton  M.  Co. . 

10 

5 

5,67017,637 

Eureka  Lake. 

Eureka        Lake 

Co 

337A 

681% 

250 

35,000 

6,480,  3,170 

Jackson      " 

Eureka        Lake 

Co 

20 

5 

5.410 

Faucherie  " 

Eureka        Lake 

Co 

90 

21 

8,000 

6,060 

3,262 

Weaver       " 

Eureka        Lake 

Co 

83^ 
262 

211V 

28 

Meadow     " 

South  Yuba  Co. 

500 

7,040 

Fordyce     (en- 

larged). .  . . 

South  Yuba  Co. 

1200 

75 

650 

.... 

7,000    .... 

Sterling 

South  Yuba  Co. 

30 

300 

7,200    

Tuolumne. . . . 

Tuolumne  Co. . 

60 

300 

40,000 

8,000    .... 

Pillarcitos 

Spring      Valley 

Water  Co 

95 

640 

696 

San  Andreas. . 

Spring      Valley 

"Water  Co.. . . 



93 

640 

.... 

455 



*  Inchides  cost  of  the  three  dams,  which  form  the  reservoir.     The  height  and  length 
given  are  for  the  main  structure. 


DAMS.  105 

these  upper  reservoirs  retain  all  the  water  flowing  into 
them,  reducing  the  catchment  basin  of  the  Bowman  to 
about  nineteen  square  miles. 

The  mean  annual  rain  and  snowfall  at  the  Bowman 
dam  is  about  seventy-five  inches,  of  which  seventy-five  per 
cent,  flows  into  the  reservoir. 

Two  dams  are  needed  to  impound  the  water.  The 
main  one,  placed  across  the  narrow  gorge  forming  the 
outlet  of  the  valley,  has  a  maximum  height  of  one  hundred 
feet  (96.25  feet  above  the  datum  base  line)  and  an  extreme 
length  on  top  of  four  hundred  and  twenty-five  feet,  and  is 
the  largest  on  the  coast. 

The  smaller  dam,  placed  across  a  gap  near  the  mouth 
of  the  valley,  has  a  maximum  height  of  fifty-four  feet  and 
an  extreme  length  on  top  of  two  hundred  and  ten  feet.  It 
is  fitted  with  waste-ways,  and  over  it  is  discharged  all  the 
surplus  water  from  the  reservoir. 

High-water  mark  is  fixed  at  a  point  one  and  one-half 
feet  below  the  summit  of  the  main  dam  ;  at  this  height  the 
reservoir  contains  918,000,000  cubic  feet  of  water  with  a 
surface  area  of  over  500  acres.  By  placing  temporary  flush 
boards  on  the  top  of  the  waste  dam  the  water  is  raised  to 
the  ninety-six  feet  line  (above  datum  base),  increasing  the 
quantity  of  water  stored  to  930,000,000  cubic  feet. 

The  stream  feeding  the  reservoir  has  a  maximum  flow 
during  great  freshets  of  5,000  to  7,000  cubic  feet  of  water 
per  second.  The  existence  of  other  reservoirs  higher  up 
the  stream  adds  to  the  danger  from  great  floods,  and  there- 
fore the  Bowman  dams  have  been  designed  to  withstand 
not  only  freshets  in  the  canons,  but  also  any  additional  in- 
flux of  water  caused  by  the  breaking  of  the  upper  dams. 

Main  Dam. — Figure  5  A  shows  a  profile  across  the 
canon,  being  a  longitudinal  section  through  the  dam. 
Figure  5  B  gives  a  cross  section  at  its  extreme  height. 

It  rests  on  solid  granite  bed-rock,  which  is  suflicient- 
ly  free  from  seams  to  prevent  any  considerable  leakage 
through  crevices  in  the  rock. 


io6 


DAMS. 


The  dam  was  built  in  1872  to  the  height  of  seventy-two 
feet,  as  shown  by  the  sketch,  being  a  timber  crib  formed 
of  unhewn  cedar  and  tamarack  logs,  notched  and  firmly 
bolted  together,  and  solidly  filled  with  loose  stones  of 
small  size.  A  skin  of  pine  planking,  spiked  to  the  water- 
face,  forms  a  water-tight  lining.  During  the  years  1875 
and  1876  the  dam  was  increased  to  the  height  of  ninety- 
six  and  one-fourth  feet  above  datum  line  (one  hundred 
feet  extreme  height)  by  filling  in  a  stone  embankment  on 
the  lower  side  of  the  old  structure,  faced  with  heavy  walls 


Section  across  Canon 

through  main  dam. 


&3;eato  95 

ft.    ?0,230 

i 

^' 

^^fesn 

Atea  to  7J 

a.    13.025 

.^^f^ 

^ 

Bll>_ 

^^^^ 

^^ 

'''"^^^ 

j^S^^^ 

""^^ 

1!^0^ 

Scale-j^^ 

-J 

P                   I 

a                     1% 

Cp^S^^^^      2 

"              Ktfl^^ 

%                      3 

0                       3v 

0                       4(0    1 

MM. 


Fig.  5A.     The  Bowman  Main  Dam. 


of  dry  rubble  stone  of  large  size.  The  down-stream  lace 
wall  is  fifteen  to  eighteen  feet  thick  at  the  bottom,  dimin- 
ishing to  six  or  eight  feet  at  the  top.  Most  of  the  face 
stones  in  this  wall  are  of  good  size,  weighing  from  three- 
fourths  to  four  and  one-half  tons,  and  there  are  many  of 
equal  weight  in  the  backing. 

The  lower  portion  of  the  wall  is  seventeen  and  one-half 
feet  high,  with  a  batter  of  fifteen  per  cent.  It  is  built  of 
heavy  stone,  with  ranged  horizontal  beds  and  with  the 
face  stone  tied  to  the  backing  by  long  iron  ties. 

The  upper  portion  of  the  wall  is  built  with  a  slope  of 
forty-five  degrees,  and  the  face  stones  are  bedded  on  an 
angle  of  twenty-two  and  one-half  degrees,  thus  dividing 


DAMS. 


107 


the  angle  between  a  horizontal  bed  and  a  bed  at  right 
angles  to  the  face.     No  attempt  at  range  work  was  made 


CO 


3 

B 


in  this  upper  portion  of  the  wall.  Above  the  sixty-eight 
feet  line  ribs  of  flattened  cedar,  eight  inches  thick,  are  built 
into  the  up-stream  face  wall  and  are  tied  to  it  by  iron  rods 


I08  DAMS. 

three-fourths  inch  in  diameter  and  five  feet  long.  On 
these  ribs  a  planked  skin  is  firmly  spiked.  This  planking 
is  of  heart  sugar  pine,  three  inches  thick  and  eight  inches 
wide,  with  planed  edges  fitted  with  an  outgauge,  similar 
to  ship  planking.  The  plank  was  put  on  nearly  thorough- 
ly seasoned,  and  swells  sufficiently  to  make  the  face 
practically  water-tight  without  battening  or  calking  the 
joints.  The  openings  at  the  joints  made  by  the  outgauge 
suck  in  small  particles  of  vegetable  matter,  which  take  the 
place  of  calking  to  a  great  extent.  At  the  bottom  the 
plank  is  fitted  to  a  firm  bed-rock  and  calked  with  pine 
wedges.  There  are  three  thicknesses  (nine  inches)  on 
the  lower  twenty-five  feet,  two  thicknesses  (six  inches)  on 
the  next  thirty-five  feet,  and  one  thickness  on  the  upper 
thirty-six  feet. 

From  past  experience  it  is  believed  that  the  plank- 
ing will  remain  sufficiently  sound  for  twenty  years  at 
least. 

A  culvert  extends  through  the  dam,  as  shown  by 
Fig.  5  B,  through  which  the  water  is  drawn  from  the 
reservoir.  This  culvert  is  built  with  heavy  dry-rubble 
foundation  and  walls,  and  is  covered  with  granite  slabs 
sixteen  to  eighteen  inches  thick  and  six  and  one-third  feet 
long. 

Three  wrought-iron  pipes  of  No.  12  iron,  each  eight- 
een inches  in  diameter,  pass  through  the  water-face  of  the 
dam.  Their  upper  mouths  are  protected  by  a  strainer, 
formed  of  two-inch  plank,  anchored  to  the  bed-rock.  A 
separate  valve  or  gate  is  placed  at  the  lower  end  of  each 
pipe  ;  the  water  passing  through  the  gates,  aggregating  a 
flow  of  280  cubic  feet  per  second  when  the  three  are  open, 
discharges  into  a  covered  timber  sluice,  seven  and  one- 
half  feet  wide  by  one  and  three-fourths  feet  high,  passing 
to  the  lower  edge  of  the  dam,  and  thence  on  to  the  solid 
rock  of  the  creek  bed.  The  gates  are  approached  by  a 
walk  way  above  the  sluice.  The  crest  of  the  dam  is 
formed  by  a  coping  of    hewn  heart-cedar  timber,   eight- 


DAMS.  109 

een  inches  wide  on. top,  securely  anchored  l)y  iron  bolts 
to  the  stone  wall. 

It  is  not  probable  that  any  water  will  ever  pass  over 
the  crest  of  the  main  dam,  except  in  case  of  a  break  at 
the  large  reservoir  higher  up  the  stream.  Great  care 
was  taken  in  building  the  down-stream  face  wall  of  the 
dam  for  any  such  possible  emergency.  Should  this  hap- 
pen a  large  quantity  of  water  would  enter  the  structure, 
owing  to  the  inclined  beds  of  the  face  stone  and  the  flat 
slope  of  the  wall,  which  water  would  seek  its  discharge 
through  the  interstices  purposely  left  in  the  nearly  verti- 
cal portion  of  the  lower  wall.  To  prevent  the  consequent 
hydrostatic  pressure,  which  would  accumulate  at  the  base 
of  the  dam  to  perhaps  twenty  pounds  to  the  square  inch, 
from  forcing  out  the  lower  face,  the  wall  was  carefully 
built  and  tied  with  iron  rods. 

There  are  55,000  cubic  yards  of  material  in  this  struc- 
ture, weighing  about  85,000  tons  ;  the  hydrostatic  pres- 
sui"e,  with  the  water-line  ninety-five  feet  above  datum, 
against  a  vertical  plane  of  that  height  across  the  caiion 
at  the  dam  site  will  be  21,745  tons.  The  dam  is  built  V- 
shaped,  with  the  vertex  of  the  angle  of  165°  pointing  up 
stream.  This  mode  of  construction  adds  somewhat  to 
the  stability  of  the  structure.  The  cost  was  $151,521.44. 
The  rather  peculiar  construction  of  this  dam  was  due  to 
the  following  causes  : 

The  stone  cliffs  in  the  vicinity  are  composed  of  an  ex- 
ceedingly hard  granite  with  poor  cleavage,  but  with  great 
numbers  of  short  cross  seams,  making  it  most  costly  to 
quarry  stone  of  large  dimensions. 

No  limestone  existing  in  the  vicinity,  the  cost  of  trans- 
porting lime  was  so  great  as  to  prevent  its  use. 

On  the  side  of  the  mountain,  at  the  distance  of  about 
one  mile,  there  was  a  large  pile  of  loose  stone,  too  irregu- 
lar in  shape  to  be  used  in  wall-building,  but  of  good  quali- 
ty for  an  embankment.  It  was  found  to  be  cheaper  to 
build  a  tramway  to   this  stone  and  haul  it  to  the  work 


no  DAMS. 

than  to  quarr}-  from  the  cliffs  nearer  the  dam.  Hence, 
the  supply  of  material  being  abundant,  flat  slopes  of  45° 
for  the  wall  were  adopted,  which  allowed  very  much 
lighter  face  walls  to  be  used  with  safety  than  would  have 
been  the  case  had  they  been  more  nearly  vertical. 

The  stone  for  these  face  walls  was  quarried  from  solid 
rock,  and  cost  in  place  three  or  four  times  more  than  the 
loose  stone  brought  from  the  mountain  side.  When  in 
the  future  the  timber  logs  forming  the  cribs  in  the  origi- 
nal seventy-two  feet  dam  decay,  there  will  be  some  slight 
subsidence  of  the  superincumbent  stone.  The  depth  of 
the  stone  is  so  considerable  and  the  slopes  of  the  walls 
are  so  flat  that  it  is  believed  this  subsidence  will  not  be 
noticeable. 

Waste  Dam. — Figures  6A  and  6B  show  longitudi- 
nal and  cross  sections  of  the  waste  dam.  This  is  a  crib  of 
round  cedar  timbers  varying  from  twelve  to  thirty  inches 
in  diameter,  notched  down  to  heart  wood  at  the  joints, 
and  firmly  bolted  with  three-quarter  and  one-inch  drift 
bolts.  The  foundation  logs  are  all  fastened  to  the  bed- 
rock with  one  and  one-half  inch  bolts. 

The  cribs  are  solidly  filled  with  granite  rocks  vary- 
ing from  several  tons  to  a  few  pounds.  No  sand  or  fine 
stone  was  used  in  this  filling.  A  plank  facing  of  three- 
inch  heart  sugar-pine  is  spiked  on  the  water-face,  mak- 
ing a  water-tight  lining  similar  to  that  on  the  main 
dam. 

The  crest  of  the  original  dam  is  ninety-two  and  one- 
half  feet  above  datum  line,  being  four  feet  lower  than  the 
summit  of  the  main  dam.  A  light  superstructure  of  four 
feet  allows  the  water  to  be  raised  to  the  height  of  the 
main  dam.  The  waste  dam  is  provided  with  twenty- 
eight  escapes,  each  four  feet  wide  and  eleven  feet  deep. 
These  waste- wa3\s  are  closed,  when  all  danger  from  fresh- 
ets is  passed,  with  boards  two  inches  thick,  eight  inches 
wide,  four  and  one-half  feet  long,  laid  horizontally,  and 
sliding  to  their  places  one  above  the  other  on  the  inclined 


DAMS. 


Ill 


slope  of  the  water-face.    This  style  of  gate  has  been  found 
by  long  experience  to  be  the  best. 

The  weight  of   the  dam  is  about  6500  tons,  and  the 
hydrostatic  pressure,  with  the  water  line  95  feet  above 


Section  across  Ravine. 


Section  through  waste  dam. 

Scale    -T;rr— 


92i4/t.  Water  mar  k.^^^s^ 


TZii/t,  "WaCer-ma; 


iS>Jt. 


Fig.  6.     Bowman  Waste  Dam. 


datum  line,  against  a  vertical  plane  of  that  height  across 
its  upper  face,  is  2571  tons. 

It  is  believed  that  the  structure  is  sufficientlv  stable  to 
allow  a  flood  of  16,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  to 
pass  with  safetv  through  the  wastes  and  over  its  crest. 

The  water  passing  over  the  dam  falls  on  bare  granite 
bed-rock,  and  thence  down  a  steep  gorge. 


112  DAMS. 

From  past  experience  in  the  use  of  cedar  timber  it  is 
safe  to  assume  that  the  life  of  this  structure  will  be  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty  years,  and  possibly  longer.  Its  cost 
was  $15,000.* 

Debris  Dams. — Debris  dams  arc  obstructions  placed 
across  the  beds  of  streams  for  the  purpose  of  holding  back 
the  sand  and  gravel  coming  from  the  mines,  to  prevent 
their  entering  into  the  navigable  streams  and  damaging 
the  land  in  the  valleys  below.  They  may  be  placed  either 
in  the  mountain  cahons  or  in  the  valleys  where  storage 
room  can  be  conveniently  obtained.  These  dams  or  bar- 
riers ma}'  be  composed  of  stone,  wood,  or  brush,  as  cir- 
cumstances require.  The  structures  are  not  designed  to 
impound  water,  but  simply  to  check  the  velocity  of  the 
current  carrying  the  mining  and  other  debris  and  to  allow 
the  deposit  of  the  material  behind  them,  and  therefore 
they  partake  more  of  the  character  of  retaining  walls  than 
of  water  dams. 

"The  deposits  in  the  streams  consist  of  stones  several  cubic  feet  in 
volume — cobble,  gravel  in  all  sizes,  sand  in  various  degrees  of  fineness, 
and  a  mixture  of  extremel)'  fine  sand  and  clay,  popularly  known  as  '  slick- 
ens.'  This  latter  material,  being  easily  transported,  is  constantly  in  motion, 
even  in  the  low  stages  of  the  stream.  The  same  is  probably  also  true  of 
the  finer  sands,  and  in  particular  streams  is  true  of  the  gravel,  at  least  in 
the  upper  portions,  where  the  beds  are  confined  and  where  the  slopes  are 
steep. 

"  When  the  high  stages  of  water  come  they  find  the  beds  of  the  streams 
dotted  at  the  ends  of  the  mining  sluices  with  mounds  of  detritus,  which 
sometimes  form  dams  across  the  beds  of  the  stream. 

"  The  effect  of  the  flood-water  is  to  sweep  these  deposits,  excepting 
perhaps  the  largest  pieces  of  stone,  and  to  carry  them  away  to  lower  parts 
of  the  river.  The  fall  of  some  of  the  principal  streams  serving  as  outlets  to 
the  mines  is  in  places  50  and  even  75  feet  to  the  mile.  A  rise  of  20  feet 
more  or  less  in  a  narrow  bed  with  such  a  fall  is  sufficient  to  move  material 
with  great  eflFect. 

"The  periods  and  stages  of  high  water  vary  very  much  here  as  else- 
where ;  but  the  rainfall,  be  it  large  or  small — and  there  is  great  variation  in 
this  respect — comes  mainlj'  in  two  or  three  months,  so  that  there  is,  except 

*  The  above  description  of  the  Bowman  dams  is  essentially  the  same  as  that  written  for 
the  author  by  Hamilton  Smith,  Jr.,  who  planned  and  constructed  the  dams. 


DAMS.  I  I  3 

in  very  dry  years,  a  period  of  some  length  in  which  tlie  water  is  liigh  from 
rains. 

"There  is  also  a  period  of  high-water  in  the  spring,  due  to  melting  of 
the  snow  which  has  accumulated  during  the  winter  on  the  higher  altitudes 
of  the  Sierra. 

"The  mass  of  material  tluis  put  in  motion  in  narrow  and  steep  river- 
beds is  carried  along  to  the  lower  parts  of  the  rivers,  each  tributary  contri- 
buting its  share  of  flood-water  and  detritus,  and  uniting  to  form  at  or  near 
the  edge  of  the  foot-hills  the  rivers  to  which  we  have  given  names.  As  the 
detritus  reaches  lower  portions,  the  streams,  less  concentrated  and  with 
constantly  diminishing  fall  in  the  bed,  find  themselves  unable  to  carry  to 
the  lower  course  the  load  which  they  transported  in  the  upper.  When 
these  streams,  as  they  were  before  mining  was  begun,  reached  the  plains  of 
the  Sacramento  Valley,  the  fall  of  the  beds  diminished  to  a  very  few  feet 
per  mile,  perhaps  3  or  4,  so  that,  all  along  the  whole  lower  course  of  the 
river,  the  bed  first,  and  afterwards  the  plains  bordering  the  river  where  the 
banks  were  low,  became  depository  places  for  the  material  the  river  was  no 
longer  able  to  carry.  The  river  bed  in  the  plains  first  becomes  obliterated 
by  deposits,  and  then  the  alluvial  lands  adjoining  become  a  waste  of  sand, 
gravel,  and  'slickens.'  Instead  of  a  river  bed  there  is  a  wide  plain  over- 
flowed at  high  stage,  through  which,  meandering  in  constantly  varying 
channels,  the  summer  river  pursues  its  devious  course."  * 

The  topography  of  the  countr}^  along  the  Hues  of  the 
mountain  streams,  though  rugged,  affords  ev^ery  faciHty 
for  carrying  out  successfully  a  plan  for  storing  the  tail- 
ings. The  banks  are  generally  of  great  height,  with  slopes 
tvhich  vary  from  hfteen  to  fifty  degrees.  The  general 
slope  is  about  thirty-five  degrees,  and  "  an  elevation  of 
fifty  feet  adds  one  hundred  and  forty  to  the  width,  which 
extended  width,"  says  Col.  Mendell,  "  reduces  the  height 
of  floods,  the  cubes  of  the  heights  being  proportional  to 
the  squares  of  the  widths.  Doubling  the  width  reduces 
the  height  one  third,  which  reduction  in  height  reduces 
the  suspending  power  of  the  water  and  the  exposure  of  the 
structure  to  floods."  f  The  storage  capacity  is  conse- 
quently increased  by  this  additional  width  as  the  bed  of 
the  stream  is  elevated. 

The  chief  obstacles  to  be  encountered  in  the  erection 

*  Annual  Report  of  the  Chief  of  Engineers  U.  S.  Army  for  iSSi,  Appendix  MM,, 
t  Col.  Mendell's  Report  on  Mining  Debris  in  California  Rivers,  p.  41. 


1 14  DAMS. 

■of  these  dams  arise  from  the  present  condition  of  the 
beds  of  the  streams,  the  accumulations  of  past  years,  and 
the  current  mining  operations.  The  channels  in  their 
present  state  contain  large  quantities  of  such  detritus.  In 
the  Yuba  alone  above  Smartsville  over  80,000,000  cubic 
yards  are  estimated  to  be  deposited  in  the  canons,  and  be- 
tween Smartsville  and  the  mouth  of  the  Yuba  some  700,- 
000,000  cubic  yards  are  said  to  be  in  the  bed  of  the  stream. 
According  to  the  testimony  given  in  the  case  of  Keyes  vs^ 
Little  York  Gold  Washing  and  Water  Company,  86,000,- 
000  cubic  yards  were  estimated  in  1878  to  have  been  de- 
posited in  the  bed  of  Bear  River  above  the  plains,  and  36,- 
000,000  cubic  yards  below  the  foot-hills  to  its  mouth,  a 
total  of  122,000,000  cubic  yards. 

Without  entering  further  into  details  of  numerous 
other  streams  in  which  debris  is  or  has  been  deposited  for 
the  past  thirty-five  years,  suffice  it  to  say  that,  mining  or 
no  mining,  it  is  only  a  question  of  time  as  to  when  a  large 
part  of  this  mass  will  move  down  into  the  lowlands,  un- 
less measures  are  taken  to  prevent  the  continuous  eroding 
action  of  the  waters  and  also  to  impound  the  material, 
which  can  be  done  only  by  the  construction  of  a  system 
of  permanent  dams.  Such  structures  would  prevent  the 
streams  from  eroding  the  deposits  to  their  original  beds, 
which  otherwise,  under  certain  conditions,  must  sooner  or 
later  occur.  They  would  hold  in  check  the  accumula- 
tions of  sand  and  debris  now  stored  in  the  canons,  and 
would  permit  the  continuation  of  mining  without  detri- 
ment to  the  interests  of  others. 

"  It  maybe  asked,"  saj's  Col.  Mendell,  "whether  the  protection  afford- 
ed in  this  way  will  be  complete  and  include  all  grades  of  mining  tailings. 
This  cannot  be  claimed.  The  suspensory  matter  of  fine  sands  and  clay 
cannot  be  restrained  in  this  way  or  by  any  other  method  which  does  not 
provide  a  settling  basin  in  which  the  water  can  be  maintained  in  a  quies- 
cent state  for  some  time. 

"It  may  also  be  expected  .that  during  the  flood  stages  in  the  early 
period  of  development  a  certain  portion  of  material  of  every  grade  may  be 
suspended,  and  thus  pass  the  crest  of  the  barrier  ;  but  it  is  to  be  remarked 


DAMS.  1 1  5 

that  as  the  width  is  increased  the  suspensory  power  is  diminished,  so  that 
the  degree  of  protection  becomes  greater  as  the  system  is  developed.  We 
can  imagine  a  condition  of  a  river  when  comparatively  little  is  carried  sus- 
pended, and  nearly  the  whole  of  the  material  transported  is  rolled  in  waves 
on  the  bottom. 

"  This  condition  is  more  and  more  approached  as  the  dams  are  raised. 
It  seems,  therefore,  to  be  good  policy  to  give  the  first  dam  in  the  cafions 
considerable  height. 

"  It  will  be  understood  that  permanent  protection  can  be  attained  only 
by  building  dams  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  detritus  turned  out  by 
the  mines.  The  system  must  be  continued  at  least  as  long  as  the  mines 
are  worked. 

"  If  this  system  of  restraint  had  proceeded  pari  passu  with  mining  dur- 
ing the  past  thirty  years  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  the  condition  of  the 
country  affected  would  to-day  have  been  much  better  than  it  is."  * 

The  height  of  floods  in  the  Yuba  is  only  twelve  feet 
at  the  Narrows,  and  the  water  is  fully  loaded  with  all 
the  material  it  is  capable  of  transporting.  To  insure  pro- 
tection permanent  structures  are  therefore  required.  On 
sand  or  gravel  bottoms  mattresses  of  trees  or  brush  may 
be  used  to  prevent  settling ;  but  where  the  supply  of  rock 
is  abundant,  convenient,  and  cheap,  masses  of  stone  can 
be  blasted  from  the  side  hills,  and,  by  means  of  derricks 
or  otherwise,  be  easily  arranged  as  required.  The  larger 
the  rocks  are  the  better ;  the  largest  being  put  on  the 
down-stream  side,  so  placed  as  to  permit  the  draining 
through  of  the  water ;  the  smaller  rocks  on  the  u})-streani 
side.  The  slopes  on  both  sides  should  conform  to  the  re- 
quirements of  the  structure.  As  the  dam  is  built  the  ma- 
terial will  gradually  deposit  itself  against  it  on  the  up- 
stream face ;  the  water  draining  through  the  rocks  leaves 
behind  in  the  dam  the  sand,  which  gradually  hlls  up  the 
spaces  as  the  bed  of  the  river  is  raised.  Waste-ways  may 
be  readily  provided  on  one  or  both  sides  of  the  dam,  which 
would  have  the  practical  effect  of  lengthening  the  crest 
of  the  dam  and  of  thereby  reducing  the  depth  of  water 
passing   over   it   in  freshets,    in    the   proportion   already 

*  Col.  Mendell's  Report  on  Mining  Debris  in  California  Rivers,  p.  41. 


Il6  DAMS. 

stated.  This  arrangement  will  lessen  the  exposure  of 
the  lower  face  and  toe  of  the  dam. 

In  time  of  great  flood  the  crest  will  be  submerged  to  a 
greater  or  less  degree,  depending  on  the  width  of  the 
structure  and  the  volume  of  water  discharged  by  the 
sti-eam.  This  would  be  of  little  consequence,  as  the  work 
should  be  especially  designed  to  permit  of  the  flood 
waters  passing  over  it,  the  stability  of  the  dam  being  as- 
sured by  the  size  and  weight  of  the  stones  exposed  to  the 
water. 

The  stability  of  a  structure  of  this  character  is  de- 
pendent upon  conditions  differing  from  those  which  ap- 
ply to  a  structure  composed  of  stones  united  by  a  bond, 
such  as  an  ordinary  retaining  wall.  In  the  latter  case,  if 
the  bond  is  sufficient  to  make  the  wall  practically  a  mono- 
lith, its  stability  will  be  complete  if  it  be  given  weight 
enough  to  prevent  it  from  sliding  on  its  base,  and  such 
proportions  that  it  can  have  no  motion  of  rotation  about 
its  toe. 

The  force  tendmg  to  move  or  overthrow  the  bonded 
dam  is  equal  to  the  weight  of  a  prism  of  water  whose 
base  is  the  area  immersed,  and  whose  height  is  the  verti- 
cal distance  of  the  centre  of  gravity  from  the  water- 
level.  The  point  of  application  of  this  thrust  is  situated 
at  one-third  of  the  height  of  the  water  measured  from 
the  base.  The  direction  of  the  thrust  is  normal  to  the 
surface. 

The  problem  is  an  exact  one.  The  thrust  is  known  in  its 
magnitude,  its  point  of  application,  and  its  direction,  and 
the  problem  of  proportioning  a  wall  of  masonry  to  resist 
this  thrust  admits  of  complete  solution.* 

But  the  detritus  barriers  are  composed  of  pierres-per- 
dues,  or  what  is  commonly  known  as  "  rip-rap."  There 
can  be  little  bond  in  such  a  structure.  Careful  placing  of 
stones  may,  it  is  true,  impart  something  like  a  bond,  but 

♦  See  Rankin,  Krantz. 


DAMS. 


117 


this  cannot  be  safely  relied  upon  as  a  source  of  strength. 
Each  stone,  being  practically  independent  of  its  neighbors, 
must  rely  upon  its  own  resisting  quality  to  maintain  its 
place  in  the  structure. 

It  follows  that  where  the  floods  are  great  and  the  ex- 
posure consequently  large  the  stones  must  be  proportion, 
ately  large  and  licavy. 

The  interior  of  a  structure  of  this  kind,  being  protect- 
ed from  the  action  of  the  water  and  held  in  place  by 
superincumbent  weight,  may  be  composed  of  sizes  of 
stone  which  it  would  be  unsafe  to  place  on  the  crest  and 
exposed  surfaces.  The  stones  of  the  crest  and  on  the 
lower  slope  are  most  exposed,  and  consequently  must  be 
of  the  largest  sizes.  The  force  that  tends  to  move  them 
is  not  hydrostatic  pressure,  but  the  force  and  impact  of 
great  volumes  of  water  moving  with  high  velocity. 

Such  a  structure,  composed  of  rubble  stone  and  unable 
to  impound  water,  would  be  exposed  to  the  pressure  of 
the  material  w^hich  is  slowly  deposited  behind  it.  The 
maximum  horizontal  pressure  from  this  source  alone 
would  be  reached  when  the  plane  of  fracture  of  the  earth 
bisects  the  angle  which  will  be  formed  by  the  earth  slop- 
ing back  from  the  foot  of  the  wall  on  its  angle  of  repose  ; 
therefore  the  weight  of  such  a  prism  can  be  easily  cal- 
culated. 

As  the  dam  tills  up,  the  pressure  of  the  material  on  it- 
self, owing  to  its  composition,  would  cause  it  to  consoli- 
date (cement),  thus  continually  changing  the  angle  of  re- 
pose, until  finally,  when  even  with  the  crest,  there  would 
be  comparatively  no  horizontal  thrust  or  pressure  on  the 
dam,  the  structure  simply  protecting  the  face  of  the  de- 
posit from  erosion.  Therefore  such  barriers,  constructed 
with  proper  materials  on  the  well-known  principles  of 
dam-building,  could  not  fail  to  hold  back  the  debris. 

As  these  dams  are  not  water-tight,  and  are  composed 
of  large  masses  of  rubble  stone  without  bond,  it  is  difficult 
to  see  how,  in  the  event  of  a  breach,  the  inhabitants  below 


Il8  DAMS. 

would  suffer,  nor  can  it  be  conceived  how  a  total  destruc- 
tion of  tlie  structure  could  occur.  The  dam  might  settle 
and  its  usefulness  be  temporarily  impaired,  but  the  only 
effect  that  could  result  in  the  event  of  a  breach  would  be 
a  return  to  the  condition  of  affairs  at  present  existing. 
As  the  waters  are  already  charged  to  their  fullest  extent, 
no  larger  quantity  of  debris  could  be  transported  to  a 
greater  distance  in  a  single  flood.  The  report  of  Lieut.- 
Col.  G.  H.  Mendell  to  the  Secretary  of  War  (1882)  treats 
in  detail  the  remedial  measures  proposed,  and  shows 
"  their  necessity  even  in  the  event  that  no  further  con- 
tribution be  made  to  mining  detritus  in  the  beds  of 
streams." 


TABLE    V.        I 
Kain-fall  {ii,  incht,)  nt  North  BhomfuU  and  at  the  Btnoman  Dam 


TABLE  VL 
Ji.iin  and  StiMO  Fail  at  Big  Canon  {Bowman)   Raervoir,  and  Total  Catdt  of   Water  from  its  Basin.    18.9  sguare  viiU:- 


.s„ 

.»! 

..„-..„ 

..,.-..„ 

..,r« 

■-" 

..„...,. 

..,l.,.„ 

.a,9->M> 

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...... 

1 

lis 

1^" 

y 

i 

P 

w 

J 

pi 

w 

1 

pi 

w 

1 

pi 

w 

1 

1|| 

m 

1 

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J  ip;  w 

1 

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W| 

r 

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:::: 

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H 

,: :: 

... 

:: 

t: 

:: 

:: 

ii'ie 

t: 

;: 

ff.'i',s 

.... 

.... 

0-09 

TSS£i 

'::: 

11.70 

ni  million 

:: 

"" 

'„-,'is;- 

:: 

ml  million 

i: 

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0.4* 

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■"•"■"" 

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67.« 

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2 -",;'•" 

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,.,Optr«n< 

CHAPTER  IX. 

MEASUREMENT  OF  FLOWING  WATER.* 

Weirs. — The  direct  measurement  of  flowing  water  in 
a  stream  or  channel  can  be  made  in  various  ways.  Occa- 
sionally gauge  wheels  are  used,  but  the  method  is  expen- 
sive. Gauging  by  rectangular  overfalls  (weirs)  of  certain 
dimensions  and  under  certain  circumstances  gives  results 
within  one  per  cent,  of  absolute  exactitude  (Francis'  for- 
mula). 

In  employing  this  method  the  height  above  the  crest 
of  the  surface  of  still  water,  some  little  distance  back 
from  the  weir,  must  be  carefully  measured.  It  is  also  de- 
sirable that  there  should  be  no  considerable  current  to 
the  water  at  the  place  of  measurement. 

Orifices. — Flowing  water  is  measured  also  by  its  dis- 
charge under  pressure  through  an  aperture  of  regular 
section.  Though  it  is  not  theoretically  correct,  there  will 
be  no  practical  error  in  assuming  the  average  head  to  be 
from  the  centre  of  the  aperture  when  the  width  is  con- 
siderably less  than  the  height  of  the  water  abov-e  the  top 
of  the  opening. 

Open  Cliaiiiiels. — The  measurement  of  the  surface 
velocity  of  water  passing  through  a  flume  or  canal  of  uni- 
form size  can  be  used  to  determine  its  discharge,  and  in 
some  cases  the  simple  calculation  of  discharge  made  by 

*  For  details  on  the  subject  of  the  measurement  of  water  see  "  The  Mechanics  of  Engineer- 
ing," by  Julius  Weisbach,  translated  by  E.  B.  Coxc  ;  I"  rancis' "  Lowell  Hydraulics";  "Re- 
port Mississippi  River,"  by  Humphreys  and  Abbot;  "Hydraulic  Manual,"' by  Louis  D'A. 
Jackson  ;  "  The  New  Formulae  for  the  Mean  Velocity  of  Discharge  of  Rivers  and  Canals,"  by 
W.  R.  Kutter  ;  "Hydraulic  Tables,"  by  Thos.  Higham  ;  "A  Treatise  on  Water-Supply 
Engineering,"  by  J.  T.  Fanning  ;  "  Experiments  on  the  Flow  of  Water,"  by  A.  Fteley  and 
E.  P.  Stoarns,  vol.  xii.  "  Transactions  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers." 

119 


120  MEASUREMENT   OF   FLOWING  WATER. 

multiplying  the  mean  velocity  due  to  the  grade  by  the 
average  cross  section  is  sufficiently  accurate.  The  dis- 
charge of  small  streams  is  obtained  more  exactly  by  fill- 
ing vessels  of  known  capacity. 

Formula  for  Discharge  over  Weirs. — In  gauging 
large  quantities  of  water  over  weirs  Fteley  and  Stearns's 
general  formula  can  be  used  for  the  discharge  over  the 
simplest  form  of  sharp-crested  weir,  unaffected  by  end 
contractions  or  velocity  of  approach.  If  these  conditions 
exist  the  corrections  for  them  must  be  made  separately.* 

The  formula  is 

Q  =  3.3i  LH^  + 0.007  L 

Q  is  the  quantity  in  cubic  feet  per  second,  L  the  length 
of  the  weir,  and  H  the  depth  on  the  weir  corrected  for 
velocity  of  approach.  This  formula  does  not  apply  to 
any  depth  of  the  weir  less  than  0.07  feet. 

Discharge  through  Triangular  Notches. — The 
right-angled  triangular  notch  of  thin  sheet  iron  is  a  very 
convenient  way  of  measuring  the  discharge  of  water. 
According   to    Prof.    Thompson's   experiments,    the    dis- 

6 

charge  in  cubic  feet  per  second  =  head^  (in  inches)  X 
0.0051. 

To  use  the  notch,  construct  a  weir  box,  O,  with  a  tri- 
angular notch,  Y,  made  of  iron,  fitted  in  one  end.  The 
edge  of  the  notch  must  be  sharp  and  bevelled  out,  and  the 
inside  face  must  be  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  surface 
of  the  water,  M.  Place  in  the  box  bafifle  boards  or  strips, 
K  K,  to  render  the  surface  of  the  water  near  the  point  A 
uniform  or  still  (A  is  taken  about  18  to  24  inches  back  from 
the  weir  plate  Y).  Place  a  spirit-level  or  straight-edge  C 
on  the  weir  plate  at  E ;  measure  the  distance  at  A  from  C 
to  surface  of  water.  Subtract  this  from  H,  and  find  the 
difference  in  column  marked  h  of  Table  VII.     Opposite  h, 

*  See  "  Transactions  American  Society  Civil  Engineers,"  vol.  xii.  p.  32. 


MEASUREMENT   OF   FLOWING   WATER. 


121 


in  column  Q,  will  be  found  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of 
water  flowing  over  the  notch  in  one  minute. 


THE    miner's   inch. 

The  miner's  inch  of  water  is  a 
quantity  which  varies  in  almost 
every  district  in  California ;  no  one 
gauge  has  been  uniformly  adopted, 
nor  has  any  established  pressure 
been  agreed  on  under  which  the 
water  shall  be  measured.  In  some 
counties  there  are  lo,  ii,  or  12 
hour  inches,  and  in  others  there  is 
a  24-hour  inch.  The  apertures 
through  which  the  water  is  mea- 
sured are  generally  rectangular,  but  vary  greatly  in 
width  and  length,  being  from  one  inch  to  twelve  inches 
wide  and  from  a  few  inches  to  several  feet  long.  The 
discharges  are  through  i-inch,  i-|-inch,  2-inch,  and  3-inch 
planks,  with  square  or  with  square  and  chamfered  edges, 
combined  or  not,  as  the  case  may  be.  The  bottoms  of 
the  openings  are  sometimes  flush  with  the  bottoms  of  the 
boxes,  sometimes  raised  above  them.  The  head  may  de- 
note the    distance  above  the    centre  of  the  aperture,  or 


Tig.  7.  Construction  of 
Triangular  Weirs. 


122 


MEASUREMENT   OF   FLOWING   WATER. 


TABLE  VII. 
Discharge  of  Water  through  a  Right-angled  Triangular  Notch. 

Calculated  by  W.  R.  Eckart.  C.E. 


Held,     Q"^'""'!' 

1 

Head, 

Q. 

Quantity 

1 

Head, 

Q 

Quant. 

h               Q 
Head,     Q"!".'- 

h 

Head, 

Q. 

Quantity 

inches. 

per  min., 
cu.  ft. 

inches. 

1 

per  min., 
cu.  ft. 

inches. 

per  min, 
cu.  ft. 

•     1          per  min, 
inches,   l'^^   ^^  ' 

inches. 

per  min., 
cu.  ft. 

1.05 

0.3457 

3-25 

5.827 

5.45 

21.22 

7.65    '49-53 

9-85 

93.18 

1. 10   1  O.38S4 

i    3-30 

6.054 

5.50 

21.71 

7.70   1  50.34 

9.90 

94.37 

1. 15 

0.4340 

1  3-35 

6.285 

5.55 

22.20 

7.75  !  51.16 

9-95 

95.56 

1.20 

0.4827 

3-40 

6.523 

5.60 

22.70 

7.80      51.99 

10.00 

96-77 

1-25 

0.5345 

3.45 

6.765 

5.65 

23.22 

7.85    152.83 

10.05 

97-98 

1.30 

0.5896 

3.50 

7.012 

5-70 

23-74 

7.90   1  53.67 

10.10 

99   20 

1-35 

0.6480 

3-55 

7.266 

5-75 

24.26 

7-95    '  54.53 

10.15 

100.43 

1.40 

0.7096 

-  3.60 

7.524 

5.80 

24.79 

8.00      55.39 

10.20 

101.67 

1-45 

0.7747 

3.65 

7.788 

5.85 

25-33 

8.05      56.26 

10.25 

102.92 

1.50 

0.8432 

3-70 

8.058 

5-90 

25.87 

8.10      57.14 

10.30 

104.18 

1.55     0.9153 

3-75 

8.332 

5.95 

26.42 

8.15      58.03 

10.35 

105-45 

1.60 

0.9909 

,  3.80 

8.613 

6.00 

26.98 

8.20      58.92 

10.40 

106.73 

1.65 

1.070 

3-85 

8.899 

6.05 

27-55 

8.25    '  59.82 

10.45 

108.02 

1.70 

I-I53 

3-90 

9-191 

6.10 

28.12 

8.30      60.73 

10.50 

109.31 

1-75 

1.240 

3-95 

9.489 

6.15 

28. 70 

8.35    '61.65 

10.55 

110.62 

I. So 

1-330 

4.00 

9-792 

6.20 

29.28 

8.40      62.58 

10.60 

III. 94 

1.S5 

1.424 

4-05 

10.10 

6.25 

29.88 

8.45    163.51 

10.65 

113:26 

I. go      1.522 

4.10 

10.41 

6.30 

30.48 

8.50      64.45 

10.70 

114.60 

1.95    '  1-625 

4-15 

10.73 

6.35 

31.09 

8.55      65.41 

10.75 

115.94 

2.00     1. 73 1 

.\.io 

11.06 

6.40 

31-71 

8.60      66.37 

10.80 

117.29 

2.05 

1. 841 

4.25 

11-39 

6.45 

32.33 

8.65 

67-34 

10.85 

118.65 

2.10 

I-.955 

4-30 

II  73 

6.50 

32.96 

8.70 

68.32 

10.  go 

120.02 

2.15 

2.074 

4-35 

12.07 

6.55 

33.60 

8.75 

69.30 

10.95 

121. 41 

2.20 

2.196 

4.40 

12.42 

6.60 

34-24 

8.80 

70.30 

11.00 

122.81 

2.25     2.323 

4-45 

12. 78 

6.65 

34.89 

8.85 

71-30 

11.05 

124.21 

2.30     2.455 

4.50 

13-14 

6.70 

35-56, 

8.90 

72.31 

II.  10 

125.61 

2.35     2.590 

4-55 

13-51 

6.75 

36.23 

8.95 

73.33 

II. 15 

127.03 

2.40  ,2.730 

4.60 

13-89 

6.80 

36.89 

9.00 

74.36 

11.20 

128.45 

2.45  ,2.875 

4-65 

14-27 

6.85 

37.58 

9-05 

75-40 

11.25 

129  90 

2.50  1  3-024 

4.70 

14.65 

6.90 

38.27 

9.10 

76  44 

11.30 

131-35 

2-55     3-177 

4-75 

15-04 

6.95 

38.96 

9-15 

77-49 

11.35 

132.81 

2.60  1  3-335 

4.80 

15.44 

7.00 

39-67 

9.20 

78.55 

11.40 

134-27 

2.65     3.498 

4-85 

15.85 

7-05 

40.38 

9-25 

79-63 

11-45 

135.75 

2 . 70  1  3 • 666 

4.90 

16.26 

7.10 

41.10 

9-30 

80.71 

11.50 

137-23 

2.75     3-838 

4-95 

16.68 

7-15 

41. S3 

9-35 

Si. 80 

11.55 

138.73 

2.80     4- 014 

5-00 

17. II 

7.20 

42.56 

9.40 

82.90 

11.60 

140.23 

2.85     4-196 

5-05 

17.54 

7-25 

43-30 

9-45 

84.01 

11.65 

141.75 

2.90  ;  4.382 

5.10 

17.97 

7.30 

44.06 

9-50 

85.12 

11.70 

143.28 

2.95  14-574 

5.15 

18.42 

7.35 

44-82 

9-55 

86.24 

11.75 

144-82 

3.00 

4.770 

5.20 

18.87 

7.40 

45-58 

9.60 

87-37 

11.80 

146.36 

3-05 

4.971 

5.25 

19.32 

7-45 

46.36 

9-65 

88.52 

11.85 

147.91 

3.10 

5.178 

:  5.30 

19.79 

7-50 

47.14 

9.70     89.67  1 

11.90 

149.48 

3-15 

5.388 

5.35 

20.26 

7-55 

47.92 

9-75 

90.83  1 

11.95 

151-05 

3.20 

5.605 

1  5.40 

20.73 

7.60 

48.72 

9.80 

92.00 

12.00 

152.64 

1  cubic  foo  t  =  7.48  U.  S.  gals. ;   i  U.  S.  gal.  =  8.34  pounds. 


MEASUREMENT   OF   FLOWING   WATER. 


123 


TABLE    VIII. 

Coefficients  of  Discharge  for  Rectatigular  Orifices  in  thin  vertical 
partitions  with  greater  dimension  horizontal. 

From  Fanning's  Treatise  on  "  Water-Supply  Engineering." 


Breadth  and  Height  of  Orifices. 

Head  upon 
centre  of 

Orifice, 
Feet. 

0.75  foot  high. 

0.50  foot  high. 

0.25  foot  high. 

0.125  foot  high. 

I  foot  wide. 

I  foot  wide. 

I  foot  wide. 

I  foot  wide. 

0.2 

.... 

.... 

•  •  >  • 

•6333 

0-3 



.6293 

•6334 

0.4 

.6140 

.6306 

•6334 

o-S 

.6050 

.6150 

'-•(>3'^2> 

■('ZZZ 

0.6 

.6063 

.6156 

•6317 

•6332 

0.7 

.6074 

.6162 

.6319 

.6328 

0.8 

.6082 

.6165 

.6322 

.6326 

0.9 

.6086 

.6168 

•(>2,2o 

.6324 

1. 00 

.6090 

.6172 

.6320 

.6320 

1-25 

.6095 

•6173 

•6317 

.6312 

■     1-50 

.6100 

.6172 

•6313 

•6303 

1-75 

.6103 

.6168 

.6307 

.6296 

2.00 

.6104 

.6166 

.6302 

.6291 

2.25 

.6103 

.6163 

.6293 

.6286 

2.50 

.6102 

•6t57 

.6282 

.6278 

2.75 

.6101 

•6155 

.6274 

.6273 

3.00 

.6100 

•6153 

.6267 

.6267 

3-5° 

.6094 

•  6146 

.6254 

.6254 

4.00 

.6085 

.6136 

.6236 

.6236 

4-5° 

.6074 

.6125 

.6222 

.6222 

5- 

.6063 

.61 14 

.6202 

.6202 

6. 

.6044 

.6087 

.6154 

.6154 

7- 

.6032 

.6058 

.6110 

.61 14 

8. 

.6022 

•6033 

.6073 

.6087 

9- 

.6015 

.6020 

.6045 

.6070 

10. 

.6010 

.6010 

.6030 

.6060 

15- 

.6012 

•6013 

•6033 

.6066 

20. 

.6014 

.6018 

.6036 

.6074 

25- 

.6016 

.6022 

.6040 

.6083 

30. 

.6018 

.6027 

.6044 

.6092 

35- 

.6022 

.6032 

.6049 

.6103 

40. 

.6026 

.6037 

•6055 

.6114 

45- 

.6030 

.6043 

.6062 

.6125 

SO- 

•6035 

.6050 

.6070 

.6140 

1 

124  MEASUREMENT  OF  FLOWING  WATER. 

again  that  above  the  top,  and  varies  from  4}^  inches  to  12 
inches  above  the  centre  of  the  aperture. 

The  Smartsville  inch  is  calculated  from  a  discharge 
through  a  four-inch  orifice  with  a  seven-inch  board  top  ; 
that  is  to  say,  the  head  is  seven  inches  above  the  opening, 
or  nine  inches  above  the  centre.  The  bottom  of  the  aper- 
ture is  on  a  level  with  the  bottom  of  the  box,  and  the 
board  which  regulates  the  pressure  is  a  plank  one  inch 
thick  and  seven  inches  deep.  Thus  an  opening  two  hun- 
dred  and  fifty  inches  long  and  four  inches  wide,  with  a 
pressure  of  seven  inches  above  the  top  of  the  orifice,  will 
discharge  1000  Smartsville  miner's  inches.  Each  square 
inch  of  the  opening  will  discharge  1.76  cubic  feet  per 
minute,  which  approximates  the  discharge  per  inch  of  a 
two-inch  orihce  through  a  three-inch  plank  with  a  head  of 
nine  inches  above  the  centre  of  the  opening,  the  said  dis- 
charge being  1.78  cubic  feet  per  minute.  The  Smartsville 
miner's  inch  will  discharge  2534.40  cubic  feet  in  twenty- 
four  hours,  though  in  that  district  the  inch  is  reckoned 
for  eleven  hours  only. 

Other  Inches. — The  miner's  inch  of  the  Park  Canal 
and  Mining  Company,  in  El  Dorado  County,  discharges 
1.39*  cubic  feet  of  water  per  minute.  The  inch  of  the 
South  Yuba  Canal  Company  is  computed  from  a  dis- 
charge through  a  two-inch  aperture,  over  a  one  and  one- 
half  inch  plank,  with  a  head  of  six  inches  above  the  centre 
of  the  orifice. 

At  the  North  Bloomfield,  Milton,  and  La  Grange 
mines  the  inch  has  been  calculated  from  a  discharge 
through  an  opening  fiftv  inches  long  and  two  inches 
wide,  through  a  three-inch  plank  (outer  inch  chamfered), 
with  the  water  seven  inches  above  the  centre  of  the  open- 
ing. 

Determination  of  the  Inch ;  Exi>eriinents  at 
Colninbiii  Hill. — To  determine  the  value  of  this  miner's 
inch,  a  series  of  experiments  was  made  at  Columbia  Hill, 

*  Estimated  by  J.  J.  Crawford,  M.E. 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    WATER. 


125 


T%im 


latitude  39°  N.,  elevation  2,900  feet  above  the  sea-level. 
The  liwdiilc  used  was  a  rectanc^ular  slit  fiftv  inches  long- 
and  two  inches  wide,  with  head  seven  inches  above  the 
centre  of  the  opening.  The  dis- 
charge was  over  a  three-inch 
plank,  the  outer  inch  chamfered, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  8.  The  size  of 
the  opening  was  taken  with  a 
measure  (micrometer  attached) 
which  had  been  compared  with 
and  adjusted  to  a  standard 
United  States  yard.  Time  was 
read  to  one-fifth  of  a  second ; 
the  level  of  the  water  (drawn 
from  a  large  reservoir)  was  de- 
termined with  Boyden's  hook,  micrometer  adjustment. 
The  foUowins:  results  \vere  obtained  : 


/  7 


>4 


Fig.  S. 


One  miner's  inch  will  discharge  in  i  second .026  cubic  feet. 

"  "  "  "  I  minute 1.57  " 

"  '*  *'  "  I  hour 94.2  " 

"  "  "  "  24  hours 2260.8  " 

The  coefficient  of  efflux  is  61.6  per  cent.  These  figures 
are  within  the  limit  of  ^1^  possible  error.* 

As  the  two-inch  aperture  requires  too  much  space  for 
gauging  large  quantities  of  water,  custom  has  changed  the 
form  of  the  module,  and  an  aperture  twelve  inches  high 
by  twelve  and  three-quarter  inches  wide,  through  a  one 
and  one-half  inch  plank,  with  a  head  of  six  inches  above 
the  top  of  the  discharge,  is  now  used.  These  openings 
discharge  what  is  accepted  as  200  miner's  inches. 

A  series  of  experiments  was  made  at  La  Grange, 
Stanislaus  County,  California,  latitude  i'j°  41'  N.,  eleva- 
tion 216  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  to  determine  the 
value  of  the  inch  thus  delivered  in  the  claims.  The  re- 
sults here  given  are  the  mean  of  a  series   of   gaugings 


*  The  experiments  were  made  in  1874  by  H.  Smith,  Jr.,  C.E. 


126  MEASUREMENT   OF    FLOWING   WATER. 

taken  from  nine  different  apertures,  discharging  in  the 
aersfresrate  i,8oo  miner's  inches. 

The  water  was  drawn  directly  from  a  flume  and  dis- 
charged into  a  small  reservoir,  across  the  lower  end  of 
which  was  fitted  a  gauge.  The  velocity  of  the  water 
issuing  from  the  flume  was  broken  by  several  drops  as  it 
entered  the  reservoir,  and  the  gauge  at  the  lower  end 
was  raised  sufficiently  to  prevent  any  flow  due  to  an 
increased  velocity  which  might  have  been  acquired  in  the 
flume. 

The  level  of  the  water  was  determined  with  a  Boy- 
oen's  hook. 

The  discharge  from  the  module  was  caught  in  a  flume 
and  conducted  to  a  box  fitted  and  levelled  for  the  pur- 
pose. Time  was  read  to  one-fifth  of  a  second.  The  fol- 
lowing results  were  obtained : 

One  miner's  inch  discharged  in  i  second .02499  cubic  feet. 

"  "  "  "   I  minute 1-4994  " 

"  "  "  "   I  hour 89.9640  «• 

"  "  "  "  24  hours 2159. 1460  " 

Effective  coefficient  of  effiux,  59.05  per  cent.* 

An  experiment  on  a  single  aperture  of  this  form,  made 
by  Hamilton  Smith,  Jr.,  gave  a  discharge  of  2179.4  cubic 
feet  per  miner's  inch  in  twenty-four  hours.  The  2,230 
cubic  feet  of  the  North  Bloomfield  inch  can  only  be  con- 
sidered an  assumed  rough  estimate  of  discharge  in  twen- 
ty-four hours  for  one  miner's  inch. 

The  theoretical  velocity,  in  feet  per  second,  of  a  fluid 
flowing  into  the  air,  through  openings  in  the  bottoms  or 
sides  of  a  vessel  or  reservoir,  the  surface  level  of  which  is 
kept  constantly  at  the  same  height,  is  equal  to  that  which 
a  heavy  body  would  acquire  in  falling  through  a  space 
equal  to  the  depth  of  the  opening  below  the  surface  of  the 
fluid,  and  is  expressed  as  follows : 

*  The  experiments  were  made  by  the  author. 


MEASUREMENT   OF   FLOWING   WATER.  12/ 

In  which  ^;=velocity  in  feet  per  second. 
^=the  acceleration  of  gravity. 
//=the  height  fallen  in  feet. 

This  is  called  Torricelli's  theorem,  which  supposes  in- 
definitely small  orifices  with  thin  sides,  and  assumes  that 
the  upper  surface  of  the  water  and  the  orifices  are  under 
the  same  conditions  as  regards  atmospheric  pressure. 
Conditions  and  size  of  sectional  area  of  the  aperture,  fric- 
tion, resistance  of  the  air  to  motion,  and  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  are  all  neglected. 

The  value  of  g  varies  in  different  latitudes,  but  for  all 
practical  purposes  is  taken  as  equal  to  32.2. 

v^ 
The  theoretical  head= — 

The  acceleration  of  gravity  at  latitude  45°  =  32. 17  feet 
per  second,  being  represented  by  g ;  for  any  other  lati- 
tude, /. 

^'=^(1—0.002588  cos  2/)* 

If  g  represents  the  acceleration  of  gravity  at  the 
height  h,  and  r  the  radius  of  the  earth,  the  acceleration  of 
gravity  at  the  level  of  the  sea  equals 


-'=4+^/) 


Flow  of  Water  in  Open  Channels. — There  is  no 
generally  accepted  formula  for  determining  the  velocit}- 
of  water  in  open  channels.  The  tables  based  on  the  old 
formulas  published  prior  to  the  works  of  D'Arcy  and  Ba- 
zin  in  France,  and  of  Humphreys  and  Abbot  in  the 
United  States,  being  founded  on  data  which  ignored  the 
important  factor  of  the  nature  of  the  bed  and  the  sides  of 
the  channel,  have  proved  unsatisfactory.     Hydraulic  en- 

*  See  professional  papers,  Corps  of  Engineers  U.  S.  A.,  No.  12,  page  26. 


128  MEASUREMENT  OF  FLOWING  WATER. 

gineers  have  been  compelled  to  rely  for  correctness  of 
calculated  results  on  the  application  of  a  combination  of 
a  few  known  laws  with  experimental  data,  which  latter, 
though  all-important,  have  been  tew  restricted  for  the  de- 
duction of  a  reliable  mathematical  theory. 

The  formulas,  in  terms  of  dimensions  of  cross  section 
and  slope,  are  based  upon  the  supposition  of  either  "  per- 
manent "  or  "  uniform  "  motion.  Permanent  motion  ap- 
proaches the  condition  of  streams,  permits  changes  of 
cross  section  and  slope  of  the  water-surface,  excepting 
sudden  bends,  causing  eddies  and  undulations,  but  de- 
mands that  the  discharge  from  the  different  sections  should 
be  identical.  Uniform  motion,  in  addition,  requires  an 
invariable  cross  section  and  constant  slope  of  the  fluid- 
surface.  The  general  formulas  based  on  permanent  mo- 
tion differ  from  those  restricted  to  uniform  motion,  "  by 
taking  into  account  changes  of  living  force  produced  by 
changes  of  cross  section  at  the  different  points."  *  If 
tliere  are  no  variations,  the  difference  between  the  for- 
mulas disappears. 

Chezy  considered  that  the  resistances  encountered  by 
water  in  unifoi  m  motion  were  in  direct  proportion  to  the 
length  of  the  wetted  perimeter,  to  the  length  of  the  chan- 
nel, and  to  the  square  of  the  mean  velocity  ;  from  which 
he  deduced  the  formula. 


v=c  i/'f 


rs 


V  is  the  mean  velocity  in  feet  per  second. 
c  a  coefficient  taken  at  a  constant  value. 
r  the  mean  hydraulic  radius  in  feet. 
s  the  fall  of  surface  in  a  unit  of  lensfth. 


'&" 


The  equation  indicates  the  relation  of  the  mean  veloci- 
ty to  the  slope  and  the  mean  h)'draulic  radius.  The  value 
of  the  coefficient  c  has  been  empirically  demonstrated  to 

*  Humplireys  and  Abbot,  Mississippi  Report,  p.  207. 


MEASUREMENT   OF   FLOWING   WATER.  1 29 

have  a  wide  ran<^e.  This  formula,  however,  has  been 
considered  the  simplest,  and  has  been  used  by  many  engi- 
neers, different  values  being  given  to  c,  varying  fn^ni 
84  to  100  for  large  streams,  and  being  as  low  as  68  for 
small  streams.  "  Though  there  is  abundant  evidence," 
says  Higham  (p.  5),  *'  that  the  latter  is  much  too  high  for 
low  values  of  v  in  earthen  channels,  and  that  100  is  too 
low  for  very  large  rivers,  as  high  a  value  as  254.4  having 
been  deduced  from  the  Mississippi  observations." 

D'Arcy  and  Bazin,  by  their  experiments  on  channels  of 
moderate  section  with  limited  variation  of  grades,  proved 
that  the  coefificient  c  involved  not  onl}'  r  and  s,  but  also 
a  constant  for  the  different  degrees  of  roughness  of  the 
channel,  the  formula  being  applicable  within  certain  limits 
of  inclination  and  values  of  r. 

Humphreys  and  Abbot  make  the  velocity  vary  with 
the  fourth  root  of  the  inclination,  while  Hagen  assumes 
the  velocity  to  vary  with  the  sixth  root. 

Ganguillet  and  Kutter  considered  that  the  Chezy 
formula,  v^=^c  \  ^s,  was  the  correct  point  of  departure,  but 
that  the  coefficient  should  be  made  variable,  involving- 
not  only  r  and  s,  but  likewise  a  constant  for  different  de- 
grees of  roughness  in  the  bed  or  channel. 

The  final  formula  adopted  by  Ganguillet  and  Kutter, 
which  within  certain  limits  of  inclination,  and  especially 
in  regular  channels,  will  give  very  satisfactory  results,  is 
the  folio  wins:: 


*fc> 


^   ,    1. 81 1    ,  0.00281 

0.0028l\         ^ 
X 


.     /       ^    ,    0.0028 1  \ 


\  r 


\  v 


rs 


The  coefficient  of  roughness,  N,  is  dependent  on  the 
nature  of  the  beds  and  sides.  The  useful  values  of  this 
coefficient  are  as  follows  : 


I30  MEASUREMENT   OF   FLOWING  WATER. 

Nature  of  Sides  of  Channel.  Coefficient  of  Roughness. 

Well  planed  timber iV^o.oog 

Piaster  in  pure  cement o.oio 

"         "  cement  one-third  sand o.ori 

Unplaned  timber  0.012 

Ashlar  and  brick  work 0.013 

Canvas  lining  on  frames 0.015 

Rubble 0.017 

Canals  in  very  firm  gravel "• 0.020 

Rivers  and  canals  in  perfect  order  and   regimen,  and   perfectly 

free  from  stones  and  weeds 0.025 

Rivers  and  canals  in  moderately  good  order  and  regimen,  having 

stones  and  weeds  occasionally 0,030 

Rivers  and  canals  in  bad  order  and  regimen,   overgrown  with 

vegetation  and  strewn  with  stones  or  detritus  of  any  sort. . . .  0.035 

Torrential  streams  encumbered  with  detritus 0.050 

Ditches  in  California. — In  the  mining  districts  of 
California  ditches  are  constructed  boldly,  with  steep 
grades  and  on  irregular  lines  with  numerous  sharp 
curves.  The  cross  sections,  originally  uniform,  become 
more  or  less  varied.  Absorption,  percolation,  evapora- 
tion, and  leakage  reduce  the  flow.  A  distinct,  reliable 
factor  for  each  of  these  sources  of  loss  cannot  well  be  in- 
corporated in  the  coefificient  of  discharge.  If,  then,  it  is 
intended  to  cover  all  of  these  common  sources  of  loss  by 
such  a  coefficient,  its  value  must  be  a  material  modifica- 
tion of  values  commonly  given  in  the  text  books.  It 
would  be  certainly  an  affectation  of  accuracy  to  apply  so 
complicated  a  formula  as  that  of  Kutter  in  such  a  case, 
since  the  modifying  conditions,  which  can  be  estimated 
but  roughly,  call  for  a  large  reduction  of  the  calculated 
result.  This  will  be  apparent  from  the  measurements 
of  discharge  given  further  on.  The  simple  formula, 
Q  =  ac  Vrs,  expresses  more  fitly  the  result  of  experience 
in  such  cases,  wherein — 

Q  is  the  quantity  of  water  which  the  ditch  is  capable  of 
carrying  in  cubic  feet  per  second. 

«  the  effective  area  of  cross  section  of  ditch,  as  origin- 
ally constructed,  in  square  feet. 


MEASUREMENT  OF  FLOWING  WATER.  I3I 

r  the  hydraulic  mean  depth  in  feet. 
s  the  fall  of  surface  in  a  unit  of  length. 
c  a  coefficient  covering  all  common  losses. 

Examples  of  Value  of  Coefficient  in  Ditches. — 

In  its  application  to  the  North  Bloomfield  main  ditch  * 
(length  40  miles,  sectional  area  23.89  square  feet,  grade  16 
feet  per  mile),  with  its  abrupt  turns  and  sinuous  course, 
the  value  of  the  coefficient  c,  as  determined,  varies  from 
44.7  to  37.7  in  accordance  with  the  season  of  the  year. 

The  Texas  Creek  f  branch  ditch  is  about  seven-tenths 
of  a  mile  long.  Its  sectional  area  is  13.5  feet  and  the 
grade  is  20  feet  per  mile.  The  sides  are  rough  and  the 
curves  are  sharp.  With  a  flow  of  32.8  cubic  feet  per  sec- 
ond, the  ditch  runs  about  full.  The  value  of  c-  =  33.  In 
connection  with  this  ditch  there  is  a  rectangular  flume 
2.67  feet  wide  X  2.83  feet  deep,  made  of  unplaned 
boards,  set  on  a  grade  of  32  feet  per  mile.  The  Hume 
has  some  sharp  but  regular  curves,  and  the  water  from 
the  ditch  runs  it  nearly  full  at  these  points.  With  the 
discharge  32.8  cubic  feet  per  second,  <:=:  59. 

On  the  Milton  line,  from  Milton  to  Eureka,  a  distance 
of  19.4  miles,  the  sectional  area  of  the  ditch  is  20.39  square 
feet,  grade  19.2  feet  per  mile  for  the  earthwork  and  32 
feet  per  mile  for  flume.  The  line  is  very  irregular,  hav- 
ing many  drops  and  chutes.  The  distance  from  Milton 
to  the  measuring  box  at  Bloody  Run  is  29^  miles.  The 
minimum  established  grade  for  the  last  10.  i  miles  was  16 
feet  per  mile,  with  a  sectional  area  for  the  ditch  of  23.05 
square  feet.  The  coefficient  c,  determined  from  the  gaug- 
ing at  the  measuring  box,  has  varied  from  22  in  its  leakiest 
condition  to  31,  which  latter  can  be  taken  as  correct  for 
the  present  condition.  In  the  succeeding  30  miles  below 
the  gauge,  owing  to  a  better  character  of  ground,  the  co- 
efficient reaches  41. 

*  Increased  capacity  of  this  ditch  is  limited  by  the  pipes  across  Humbug  Cafion. 
t  Far  details  of  Texas  Creek  ditch  and  flume  see  paper  by  Hamilton  Smith,  Jr.,  "  Trans- 
actions Am.  Soc.  C.E.,"  vol.  xiii.  pp.  30-31. 


132  MEASUREMENT   OF   FLOWING   WATER. 

The  La  Grange  main  ditch,  17  miles  long,  has  a  sec- 
tional area  of  22.5  square  feet,  and  a  grade  of  7  feet  per 
mile.  From  the  delivery,  56.5  cubic  feet  per  second,  at 
its  Patricksville  junction  the  coefficient  c  is  determined  to 
be  52,  but  it  is  based  upon  the  assumption  that  the  depth 
of  the  canal  is  3  feet,  whereas  in  the  original  construction 
it  was  supposed  to  have  been  made  4  feet  deep ;  the  dis- 
charge therefore  due  to  such  a  sectional  area  would  nec- 
essarily diminish  the  ascribed  value  of  ^.* 

In  all  these  canals,  after  the  artificial  banks  are  well 
consolidated,  the  water  area  is  increased  beyond  the  ori- 
ginal excavation  in  the  natural  ground. 

Accuracy  cannot  be  expected  in  calculating  the  values 
of  Q  for  proposed  ditches  of  such  character.  Important 
losses  must  vary  in  every  ditch,  depending  on  the  nature 
of  the  ground,  and  the  character  of  the  construction  of 
the  work,  and  the  season  of  the  year.  The  feeders  along 
the  lines  largely  compensate  for  these  losses.  In  order  to 
be  safe  in  estimating  the  capacity  of  a  ditch,  the  value  of 
the  coefficient  c  for  the  dry  season  should  be  taken. 

The  following  facts  show  the  magnitude  of  the  losses 
due  to  absorption,  leakage,  evaporation,  etc. 

Three  thousand  miner's  inches  of  water  (a  flow  of  75 
cubic  feet  per  second)  turned  in  during  the  dr)^  season  at 
the  head  of  the  Bloomfield  ditch  will  deliver  2,700  inches 
(67.5  cubic  feet  per  second)  at  the  gauge  40  miles  distant. 
2,400  inches  of  water  {60  cubic  feet  per  second)  turned  in 
at  the  head  of  the  Milton  ditch  formerly  delivered  at  the 
gauge,  29^  miles  distant,  1,450  to  1,600  inches  (36.25  to  40 
cubic  feet  per  second) ;  but  at  present  2,500  inches  (62.5 
cubic  feet  per  second)  turned  into  the  head  of  the  ditch 
delivers  2,000  inches  (50  cubic  feet  per  second)  at  the 
gauge.  The  exact  loss  of  water  between"  the  head  of  this 
ditch  and  the  measuring  box  is  shown  in  the  following 

*  The  grades  given  in  all  the  above  cases,  from  which  the  different  values  of  c  were  calcu- 
lated, are  otherwise  independent  of  the  drops,  chutes,  flumes,  etc.  Sectional  areas  represent 
minimum  cross  sections. 


MEASUREMENT   OF   FLOWING   WATER.  1 33 

summary,  taken  from  the  official  records  for  the  month  of 
August  for  the  years  1875  to  1882  inclusive.  This  month 
is  taken  as  a  dry  month,  as  prior  to  that  time  the  nume- 
rous side  streams  swell  the  amount  delivered  at  the 
gauge : 

RECORD   FOR   AUGUST. 

Water  turned  in  at  Milton,  — Water  record  at  Bloody  Run. — 
Year.  24-hour  inches.  24-hour  inches.  Per  cent. 

1875 44.000  34,950  79-4 

1876 59.700  42,625  71.3 

1877 67,875  44,700  65.9 

1878 7t>,050  58,875  77.4 

1879 82,725  51,350  62.0 

1880 74,080  55,325  74-7 

1881 66,850  48,325  72.3 

1882 53,300  50,984  74.4 

The  Eureka  Lake  ditch,  with  2,500  inches  turned  in  at 
the  head,  delivers  at  the  gauge,  33  miles  distant,  about 
1,800  inches  in  the  dry  season. 

The  above  statistics  lead  to  the  adoption  of  values  of 
the  co-efficient  c,  var3dng  from  31  to  45,  in  estimating  the 
capacity  of  ditches*  on  heavy  grades  of  forty  miles  length 
flowing  from  sixty  to  eighty  cubic  feet  per  second,  such 
as  referred  to — that  is  : 

Q=:T,i  to  45  a  i'rs 

The  loss  incurred  in  the  distribution  of  water  is  de- 
noted by  the  following  figures,  taken  from  the  official 
records  of  two  mining  companies.  The  amount  received 
is  measured  at  or  near  the  distributing  reservoirs;  the 
amount  used,  at  or  near  the  pressure  boxes.  The  differ- 
ence shows  the  losses  from  leakage,  evaporation,  absorp- 
tion, and  wastage  arising  from  excess  of  constant  sup- 
ply over  the  amount  needed,  with  interruptions  at  the 
claim : 

*  These  ditches  are  constructed  on  the  rough  mountain  sides  in  rock  more  or  less  disin- 
tegrated. 


134  MEASUREMENT  OF  FLOWING  WATER. 

NORTH    BLOOMFIELD   COMPANY   (24-HOUR   INCHES). 
Year.  Amount  Received.        Amount  Used.  Loss. 

1870  to  1879,  inch.  5.838,865  5,504,758  334,107=6  per  cent. 

18S0 945.550  920,612  24,938  =  21   " 

1881* 950,340  866,962  83,378=9   " 

18S2 1,025,880  1,005,977  19,903  =  2   " 

1883 862,660  836,251  26,409=3   " 

14  years 9,623,295     9,134,560     488,735  =  5  per  cent. 

MILTON   COMPANY   (24-HOUR   INCHES). 

1882 685,933       635,884      50,049=  7  per  cent. 

i883t 446,224      361,877      84,347=19   " 

2  years 1,132,157      997.76i     134,396=13  per  cent. 

♦Much  water  ran  to  waste  during  four  months,  owing  to  cessation  of  work  caused  by 
litigation. 

t  English  reservoir,  from  which  source  the  main  water-supply  was  obtained,  was  de- 
stroyed June  18,  1883. 


CHAPTER   X. 

DITCHES  AND    FLUMES. 
DITCHES. 

The  demand  for  water  throughout  the  mining  districts 
has  caused  the  construction  of  thousands  of  miles  of 
ditches.  The  cost  of  these  has  been  immense,  but  the 
returns  on  legitimate  enterprises  have  well  repaid  the 
capital  invested.  On  account  of  the  rugged  character  of 
the  country  traversed  by  the  ditch  lines,  in  order  to  lessen 
the  cost  and  expedite  the  work,  steep  grades  were  used, 
high  trestles  were  built  (in  some  instances  supporting 
large  flumes  at  elevations  of  two  hundred  to  two  hundred 
and  fifty  feet),  and  wrought-iron  pipes  wei-e  introduced 
for  conveying  the  water  across  the  valleys  and  canons. 
The  boldness  with  which  these  works  were  undertaken 
was  characteristic  of  their  originators. 

Liocatioii  aiitl  Construction  Principles. — In  lo- 
cating and  constructing  ditches  the  following  rules  should 
be  observed  : 

(i)  The  source  of  supply  should  be  at  sufficient  eleva- 
tion to  cover  the  greatest  range  of  mining  ground  at  the 
smallest  expense,  great  hydrostatic  pressure  being  always 
desirable. 

(2)  An  abundant  and  permanent  supply  of  water  dur- 
ing the  summer  months  should  be  secured. 

(3)  The  snow  line,  when  possible,  should  be  avoided, 
and  the  ditch,  especially  in  snow  regions,  located  so  as  to 
have  a  southern  exposure. 

(4)  All  water-courses  on  the  line  of  the  ditch  should 
be  secured  ;  their  supply  partially  counteracts  the  loss  by 
evaporation,  leakage,  and  absorption,  and  frequently  fur- 

»35 


136  DITCHES. 

nishes   an   additional   quantum  of  water  during   several 
months  of  the  year. 

(5)  At  proper  intervals  waste-gates  should  be  arranged 
so  as  to  discharge  the  water,  when  necessary,  without 
risk  of  damage  to  the  ditch.  In  regions  of  heav}'  snow 
these  waste-ways  should  be  provided  at  intervals  not 
greater  than  one-half  a  mile. 

(6)  Ditches,  when  practicable  and  the  cost  not  being 
exxessive,  should  be  preferred  to  flumes. 

Surveying  a  Ditch  Line. —  In  the  preliminary  ex- 
amination for  the  location  of  a  long  ditch,  by  means  of 
careful  comparative  observations  made  with  good  aneroid 
barometers,  the  elevations  not  only  of  the  termini,  but  also 
of  intermediate  points  from  which  different  surveying 
parties  can  start  on  the  subsequent  location  of  the  line, 
can  be  approximately  determined. 

The  various  necessary  points  once  established  by  sur- 
vey, the  line  is  staked.  In  levelling,  all  turning  points 
should  be  made  on  grade.  The  stations  should  be  pro- 
perly numbered  and  staked,  and  pegs  driven  to  grade. 
Every  four  or  five  stations  the  rodman  should  be  required 
to  call  off  the  reading  of  the  rod,  which  is  checked  by  the 
notes  of  the  surveyors.  Stations  may  be  from  fifty  to 
one  hundred  feet  apart  on  ordinary  ground,  but  a  very 
irregular  country  demands  shorter  intervals,  sometimes 
of  a  rod  only.  Bench  marks  should  be  placed  every  one- 
fourth  or  one-half  mile  for  convenient  reference. 

All  details  of  tunnels,  cuts,  and  depressions  which  re- 
quire fluming  or  piping  should  be  worked  out  in  full.  In 
this  work  the  hand  level  can  often  be  employed  with  ad- 
vantage. Complete  notes  should  be  made  of  the  charac- 
ter of  the  ground  along  the  entire  line,  and  also  of  any 
possible  changes. 

The  size  of  a  ditch  is  regulated  by  its  requirements. 
Its  form  will  be  modified  often  by  circumstances  of  which 
the  engineer  is  the  judge.  The  smallest  section  for  any 
given  discharge  is  when  the  hydraulic  mean  depth  is  one- 


DITCHES.  137 

half  of  the  actual  depth.  As  a  general  proposition,  this  is 
the  most  economical  form  of  profile  for  water-channels 
with  given  side  slopes.  The  amount  of  excavation  is  the 
least  in  that  channel  where  the  wetted  perimeter  for  a 
given  area  is  the  smallest.  In  practice  the  forms  common- 
ly adopted  for  ditches  and  flumes  are  trapezoidal  and  rect- 
angular. 

With  rectangular  profiles  the  resistance  due  to  friction 
is  the  smallest  when  the  width  is  twice  the  height. 

Of  trapezoidal  profiles,  the  half  of  a  regular  hexagon  is 
generally  used  in  canals  and  ditches. 

Circular  and  square  profiles  are  employed  only  in 
stone,  wood,  and  iron  constructions. 

Narrow  and  Deep  vs.  Broad  and  Shallow 
Ditches. — In  a  mountainous  country  narrow  and  deep 
ditches  with  steep  grades  will  generally  be  found  prefer- 
able to  large  conduits  with  gentler  slopes.  The  first  cost 
of  excavation  is  much  less,  as  is  also  the  cost  of  repairs 
rendered  necessarv  by  snows  and  severe  stcjrms,  the  nar- 
rower aqueduct  being  more  easily  protected.  The  ex- 
perience of  the  ditch-builders  in  this  State  has  been  uni- 
formly favorable  to  these  steep  grades,  but  little  trouble 
being  caused  by  the  washing  of  the  banks  due  to  high 
velocities.  In  the  valleys  with  ashy  soil  such  grades,  of 
course,  would  not  be  practicable. 

Ditches  in  Cahfornia  with  carrying  capacities  as  large 
as  80  cubic  feet  per  second  have  been  built,  and  are  now 
in  successful  operation,  with  grades  of  sixteen  to  twenty 
feet  per  mile. 

Excavating  the  Ditch. — Before  the  work  of  exca- 
vating is  commenced  the  line  is  cleared  of  trees  and  un- 
derbrush for  a  sufficient  width  to  render  work  afterwards 
easy  and  to  prevent  subsequent  damage  to  the  ditch.  All 
trees  which  are  liable  to  fall  and  injure  the  work  should 
be  removed  before  construction  begins.  On  a  flume  line 
the  brush  for  at  least  ten  feet  on  each  side  is  burned  as  a 
precaution  against  fire.     So  far  as  possible,  and  es[)ecially 


138  DITCHES. 

along  a  side  hill,  the  ditch  should  be  dug  so  as  to  have 
walls  of  solid,  untouched  ground,  and  not  made  banks. 
The  top  of  the  solid  bank  on  the  lower  side  should  be  fully 
three  feet  wide.  In  such  cases  the  top  soil  is  first  re- 
moved for  the  width  of  the  ditch  and  bank  ;  the  material 
excavated  to  form  the  ditch  is  used  to  raise  the  lower 
bank,  and  in  time  consolidates  to  firm  ground,  thus  in- 
creasing the  capacity  of  the  ditch. 

The  digging  of  ditches  is  usually  let  by  contract  at  a 
given  sum  per  rod,  and  heavy  cuts  per  cubic  yard.  It  is 
customary  to  excavate  large  ditches  with  a  slope  of  60° 
for  the  upper  and  65°  for  the  lower  bank.  These  slopes, 
of  course,  the  engineer  will  vary  in  accordance  with  the 
ground  encountered.  In  practice  they  are  changed  even- 
tually by  erosion  and  denudation ;  but  experience  seems 
to  warrant  the  above-mentioned  slopes  as  the  best  to  be 
adopted  in  laying  out  such  works. 

In  large  mining  ditches  constructed  with  high  grades 
and  running  large  amounts  of  water,  the  erosion  and  con- 
sequent enlargement  of  the  ditch  (when  kept  in  order)  is 
i\oticeable ;  moreover,  the  banks  gradually  become  solidi- 
fied, and  thereby  the  loss  b}^  leakage  and  absorption  is  de- 
creased. It  is  roughly  estimated  that  the  capacity  of  a 
well-constructed  ditch  which  is  properly  kept  up  is  in- 
creased about  10  per  cent,  in  eight  years. 

Ditches  poorly  built  in  the  beginning  subsequently 
require  large  and  constant  expenditures,  and  lose  con- 
siderable amounts  of  water.  The  annual  cost  of  running 
and  maintaining  large  ditches,  including  all  repairs  and 
taxes,  is  estimated  to  be  $400  per  mile. 

Examples  of  Ditches. — Among  the  principal  ditches 
in  the  State  are  the  North  Bloomfield,  the  Milton,  the 
Eureka  Lake,  the  San  Juan,  the  South  Yuba  Canal,  the 
Excelsior  or  China  ditch,  the  Bouyer,  the  Union,  the  El 
Dorado,  the  Spring  Valley  and  Cherokee,  the  Hendricks 
and  the  La  Grange. 

North    Bloomfield. — The    North    Bloomfield    main. 


DITCHES. 


139 


ditch,  including  distributers,  is  fifty-five  miles  long.  Its 
size  is  8.65  feet  on  top,  5  feet  at  bottom,  and  3}^  feet  deep. 
The  ditch  and  distributers  cost  $466,707.  Its  grade  is  six- 
teen feet  per  mile,  discharging  3,200  miner's  inches. 

3Iiltoii  Cam- 
paiiy. — The  Milton 
Company's  ditch- 
es are  eighty-four 
miles  long,  and  their 
grades  are  from 
twelve  to  thirty- 
two  feet  to  the  mile. 
The  size  of  the  main 
ditch  is  4  feet  on 
the  bottom,  7.6  feet  Fig.  9.  North  Bloomfield  Main  Ditch. 
on  top,  and  z'A  feet  G^^°^'  ^^  ^^-  ^^^  ^"^^-  ^^^^  '^-^Q  sq.  ft. 
deep,  discharging  3,000  miner's  inches  ;  cost,  $462,998. 


GRADE  19- FT. 
PER  MILE 


Fig.  10.     The  Milton  Ditch. 


Eureka    Lake. — The    Eureka    Lake  main    ditch    is 
eighteen  miles  long  and  has  a  capacity  of  2,500  miner's 


I40  DITCHES. 

inches.  Its  cost,  including  water  rights  and  flumes,  was 
$256,000.  The  San  Juan  ditch  and  branches  extend  some 
forty-five  miles  in  length  ;  the  main  ditch  is  thirty-two 
miles  long,  and  its  capacity  is  1,300  miner's  inches.  The 
cost  was  $292,992.  These  two  last  mentioned  ditches  be- 
long to  the  Eureka  Lake  and  Yuba  Canal  Company. 

Soutli  Yuba  Canal  Company. — The  main  ditch  of 
the  South  Yuba  Canal-  Company  (from  the  head  of  Bear 
River)  is  one  and  one-half  miles  long,  six  feet  wide  on  top, 
and  five  feet  deep,  with  a  grade  of  thirteen  feet  per  mile. 
Its  present  capacity  is  said  to  be  7,000  miner's  inches. 
From  Bear  Valley  (the  junction  of  the  main  and  the  Dutch 
Flat  ditches)  the  size  of  the  canal  for  the  succeeding 
thirty-one  and  one-half  miles  is  six  feet  wide  on  top,  four 
and  one-half  feet  deep,  with  a  grade  of  eight  feet  to  the  mile. 
The  Dutch  Flat  ditch  is  thirteen  miles  long  ;  it  is  six  and 
one-half  feet  wide  on  top,  four  feet  deep,  and  has  a  grade 
of  thirteen  and  one-half  feet  per  mile.  The  capacity  of  this 
ditch  is  3,150  miner's  inches.  The  Chalk  Bluff  ditch  is 
six  feet  wide  on  top  and  five  feet  deep,  with  a  grade  of 
sixteen  feet  per  mile,  and  has  a  capacity  of  4,100  miner's 
inches.  The  several  ditches  owned  by  the  South  Yuba 
Company  have  an  aggregate  length  of  one  hundred  and 
twentv-eight  miles. 

Smartsville  Ditches.— The  Excelsior,  or  China, 
ditch  at  Smartsville  is  thirty-three  miles  long,  five  feet 
wide  at  the  bottom  and  eight  feet  on  top,  and  is  four  feet 
deep.  The  grade  is  nine  feet  to  the  mile,  and  the  ditch 
discharges  1,700  Smartsville  miner's  inches. 

The  Bouyer  and  Union  ditches  are  each  about  fifteen 
miles  long,  four  feet  wide  on  the  bottom,  eight  feet  on 
top,  and  three  and  one-half  feet  deep.  Their  grades  are 
thirteen  feet  to  the  mile,  and  each  discharges  1,200  Smarts- 
ville miner's  inches. 

There  are  several  minor  ditches  which  deliver  wa- 
ter in  and  around  Smartsville.  The  total  capacity  of  all 
these  ditches  is  5,000  Smartsville  miner's  inches,  and  the 


DITCHES. 


141 


whole  investment  in  this  class  of  property  approximates 
$1,200,000. 

Spring'  Valley.— The  Spring  Valley  and  Cherokee 
ditch  is  fifty-two  miles  lon_i^  and  has  about  four  miles  of 
iron  pipe  thirty  inches  in  diameter.  The  size  of  the  ditch 
averages  five  feet  wide,  three  and  one-half  feet  deep,  dis- 
charging about  2,000  inches  of  water. 


:CTipKl  22;f£Q.  FT.    ,^^CADE  7J  FT. 
■^^vx^     PER  MILE 


Fig.  II.     La  Gr.\nge  Ditch. 


Fig.  12.  Section  of  Wall  Ditch  on  Line  of  La  Grange 
Mining  Company's  Ditch. 


Hendricks. — The  Hendricks  ditch,  in  Butte  County, 
is  forty-six  and  one-half  miles  long ;  grade  of  the  upper 
line  of  ditch,  12.8  feet  per  mile  ;  grade  of  the  lower  line, 
6.4  feet  per  mile;    dimensions,   5   feet  wide,  2  feet  deep. 


142  FLUMES. 

Total  cost,    including-   Glen   Beatson    ditch    and  Oregon 

Gulch  ditch,  $136,150.* 

La  Grange. — The  La  Grange  ditch, f  including  the 

Patricksvillc    branch,    is    over    twenty    miles    in    length. 

Size,  nine  feet  on  top, 
six  feet  at  the  bottom, 
four  feet  deep ;  grade, 
from  seven  to  eight 
feet  to  the  mile.  The 
greater  part  of  the 
ditch  is  cut  in  granite, 
and  in  places  there  are 
solid  stone   walls  fift}- 

Fig.    13.    La   Granp.f   Fi.ume.      Crossing   to    seventy    feet     high. 

AT  lNni.A.N  Bar.  t^.    t      u  j  • 

It  discharged  2,400  mi- 
ner's inches  at  the  date  of  last  measurement,  and  its  cost 
was  over  $450,000.  Its  capacity  was  formerly  larger,  but 
the  ditch  is  now  in  a  bad  condition. 

FLUMES. 

In  general,  the  use  of  flumes  is  to  be  avoided  where- 
ever  possible,  long  experience  demonstrating  that  they 
are  not  economical,  being  too  liable  to  destruction  from 
fire,  wind  and  snow  storms,  and  by  decay.  Hence  they 
are  a  source  of  continuous  expense. 

Flumes  vs.  Ditches. — There  are  instances  where 
the  formation  of  the  country  requires  the  use  of  flumes 
rather  than  ditches  ;  for  example,  where  the  water  must 
be  conveyed  along  the  face  of  vertical  cliffs,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  Miocene  Gold-Mining  Company  in  Butte  County. 
There  are  also  certain  conditions  of  the  formation  of  the 
ground,  independent  of  the  topography,  where  a  ditch 
cannot  be  employed  so  economically  as  a  flume — viz., 
when  the  ground  is  composed  of  either  very  hard  or  very 

*  See  Raymond's  Report,  1873.  pages  73  and  74. 

t  The  original  ditch,  about  nineteen   miles  long,  is  said  to  have  cost  $375,000.     Since  its 
completion  the  Patricksvillc  ditch  and  reservoir  have  been  built  at  a  cost  of  $75,000. 


FLUMES. 


143 


porous  and  shattered  material.  Likewise  where  water  is 
scarce  and  the  evaporation  and  absorption  are  great, 
flumes  must  necessarily  be  preferred.  In  such  cases 
as  these  either  flumes  or  pipes  ma}-  be  advantageously 
used. 

Grades.  —  Flumes  are  set,  where  practicable,  on 
grades  of  twenty-five  to  thirty-five  feet  per  mile,  and  are 
consequently  of  proportionately  smaller  area  than  ditches. 

The  annexed  sketch  shows  the  general  st3'le  of  con- 
structing flumes. 

Planking*. — The 
planking  used  ordi- 
narily is  of  heart  su- 
gar pine  (seasoned) 
one  and  one-half  to 
two  inches  thick, 
twelve  to  twenty-four 
inches  wide,  accord- 
ing to  the  require- 
ments, and  twelve  to 
sixteen  feet  long,  the 
twelve-foot  length  be- 
ing the  most  desirable. 

Sills  and  Posts. 
— Where  the  boards 
join,  pine  battens 
three  to  four  inches 
wide,  one-half  inch 
thick,  cover  the  seams 
Sills,  posts,  and  caps 

strengthen  the  structure  every  four  feet.  The  dimensions 
of  the  timbers  depend  on  the  size  of  the  flume.  A  flume 
two  and  one-half  feet  square  requires  3X4  inch  scantling 
for  posts,  caps,  and  sills,  and  4X6  inch  for  the  stringers  ; 
vhile  a  flume  4X3  feet  in  the  clear  should  use  4X5  inch 
stuff  for  the  caps  and  posts,  sills  4X6  inches,  with  string- 
ers 10X8  inches  in  size.     These  sizes  are  used  in  regions 


Fig.   14.    Flume  Construction. 


144  FLUMES. 

of  heavy  snow,  and  can  be  reduced  somewhat  in  milder 
localities. 

The  width  of  the  flume  regulates  the  length  of  the 
sills  and  caps,  and  the  length  of  the  posts  is  determined 
by  the  depth  of  the  flume,  three  inches  or  less  being 
allowed  between  the  top  of  the  planks  and  the  cap.  In 
larger  flumes  these  different  sizes  are  slightly  increased. 

The  posts  should  be  set  into  the  caps  and  sills  with  a 
gain  of  one  and  one-fourth  inch,  and  not  mortised.  The 
sills  generally  extend  from  twelve  to  twenty  inches  be- 
yond the  post  (according  to  the  size  of  the  structure), 
and  to  them  side  braces  are  nailed  to  strengthen  the 
structure,  although  these  side  braces  are  generally  unne- 
cessary in  properly  constructed  flumes.  In  the  mountain 
regions  snow  and  ice  frequently  attach  themselves  to  the 
braces  and  sills,  breaking  them  off  and  occasionally  de- 
stroying the  flume.  On  top  of  the  caps  there  is  placed  a 
foot  plank  eight  to  ten  inches  in  width. 

Flumes  should  be  placed  on  a  solid  bed  on  the  re- 
quired grade.  To  avoid  damage  from  slides,  or  snow  and 
wind  storms,  the  bed  should  be  excavated  in  the  bank  of 
the  side  hills  and  the  flume  placed  close  to  the  bank. 
Stringers  running  the  entire  length  of  the  flume  are 
placed  beneath  the  sills  immediately  outside  of  the  posts. 
They  are  not  absolutely  necessary,  but  are  desirable,  as 
they  preserve  the  sill  timbers  from  decay. 

Curves. — When  curves  are  necessary  they  should  be 
laid  with  great  care,  so  as  to  insure  the  maximum  flow  of 
water.  The  boxes  must  be  cut  in  two,  three,  or  four 
parts,  as  the  case  may  demand.  This  necessitates  an  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  sills,  posts,  and  caps.  To  secure 
the  better  curving  of  the  side  planks  they  are  sawed  par- 
tially through  in  different  places,  so  that  they  bend  easily, 
the  sawed  portions  closing  thoroughly  by  the  curving  of 
the  plank. 

To  distribute  the  water  equally  over  the  entire  flume 
and  prevent  slack  water,  irregular  currents,  and  splash- 


FLUMES.  .  145 

ing,  the  outer  side  of  the  tliiine  is  raised  in  accordance 
with  the  curve.  No  rule  can  be  given  for  the  exact 
amount  of  rise,  but  it  can  be  readily  determined  b}' 
wedging  up  the  flume.  This  is  verv  essential  in  cold 
climates,  as  ice  forms  where  any  splashing  occurs. 

Waste-Gates. — Waste-gates  should  be  placed  every 
half-mile,  so  that  the  water  can  be  reaclilv  turned  out,  as 
may  be  required  from  time  to  time,  and  are  especially 
necessary  in  case  of  any  accident.  They  should  dis- 
charge the  water  clear  of  the  line  to  prevent  any  under- 
mining. They  are  useful  also  for  clearing  the  canal  of 
snow  and  ice. 

Precautions  against  Cold. — In  the  snow  belt  the 
flumes  are  covered  with  sheds  in  the  most  dangerous 
places  where  they  are  exposed  to  snow  slides.  The  most 
approved  form  of  snow  shed  consists  of  sets  of  timber 
4X6  inches  to  7X9  inches  in  size,  placed  at  intervals  of 
four  feet  and  covered  with  boards  or  lagging.  Where 
the  flume  is  set  in  close  to  the  bank  the  circulation  of  air 
around  it  during  the  winter  is  partially  prevented  bv 
snow,  and  freezing  of  the  water  is  not  so  probable  as 
where  the  flume  is  exposed  on  all  sides. 

Great  difficulty  is  experienced  sometimes  in  keeping 
flumes  and  ditches  open  during  long  continued  ver}- 
cold  weather,  on  account  of  the  formation  of  anchor  ice 
on  the  bottom.  When  this  occurs  it  is  necessary  imme- 
diateh"  to  turn  out  the  water,  otherwise  the}'  will  fill  up 
solidly  with  ice  and  remain  closed  until  spring.  Should 
snow  fill  the  flume  when  empty,  it  can  be  readily  run  out 
if  the  water  is  turned  on  hefore  it  is  allowed  to  pack. 

In  Nevada  County,  at  the  head  of  the  Bloomflcld  ditch, 
the  snow  falls  in  depths  of  from  six  to  thirteen  feet  on  a 
level.  The  temperature  ranges  as  low  as  zero,  but  ordi- 
narily has  a  winter  mean  of  30°  Fahr,  The  Bloomfield 
ditch,  carrying  80  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second,  is  sel- 
dom troubled  by  the  forming  of  ice  or  snow  blockades. 
This  ditch    is   supplied   from    a   reservoir,   the   water   of 


146  FLUMES. 

which  is  of  a  temperature  of  36°  Fahr.  The  canal  for 
the  first  twenty  miles  collects  but  little  snow  even  durincy 
heavy  storms  ;  in  the  lower  twenty  miles,  the  water  hav- 
ing become  more  chilled,  snow  collects  rapidly  at  times, 
and  the  ditch  has  upon  a  few  occasions  been  blockaded. 

Other  ditches  in  the  same  locality,  of  nearly  equal  ca- 
pacity, but  lying  on  the  cold  north  hillsides  and  drawing 
water  from  creeks  and  rivers,  have  great  difficulty  in 
running  water  in  cold,  stormy  winters,  owing  to  the 
formation  of   ice,  snow  slides,  and  snow  blockades. 

The  head  of  the  Milton  ditch  being  on  the  north  side 
of  a  cold  canon,  the  temperature  at  times  falls  as  low  as 
—21°  Fahr.  Notwithstanding  this  excessive  cold,  the  ditch 
IS  kept  open  the  greater  part  of  the  winter  when  there  is  a 
sufficient  supply  of  water,  and  with  a  flow  of  80  cubic  feet 
per  second  probably  but  little  difficulty  would  be  experi- 
enced in  keeping  up  a  constant  supply. 

Experience  in  the  Black  Hills. — In  the  winter  of 
1879-80,  on  the  line  of  the  Wyoming  and  Dakota  Water 
Company's  open  flume,  at  the  head  of  the  Spearfish  River 
in  the  Black  Hills,  Dakota,  with  the  mercury  ranging  from 
5°  to  35°  (Fahr.)  below  zero,  no  difficulty  was  experienced 
in  running  the  water  a  distance  of  about  six  miles  (the 
portion  then  finished)  during  the  entire  season,  the  tempe- 
rature of  the  water  varying  from  42°  to  35°  Fahr. 

On  one  occasion  the  thermometer  reached  43°  below 
zero,  as  indicated  by  the  spirit  thermometers,  the  mercu- 
rial thermometers  bursting  at  —42°  Fahr.  The  temperature 
of  the  water  at  this  time  fell  to  35°  Fahr.  The  extreme 
cold  lasted  but  a  few  hours,  still  no  ice  formed  in  the 
flume.  The  water  (a  continuous  flow  of  350  cubic  feet 
per  minute)  in  the  flume  was  drawn  directly  from  the 
Spearfish  River  (supplied  at  the  upper  end  by  springs), 
which  was  at  this  season  frozen  over.  The  water  did 
n(jt  freeze  because  the  flume  was  well  protected  and 
set  in  close  to  the  bank,  thus  allowing  no  circulation 
of  air  under  the  sills,  the  outer  ends  being  covered  with 


PROFILE    OF    THE 

SPEARFISH      DITCH. 


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FLUMES.  147 

snow  ;  the  boxes  were  set  to  an  exact  grade  and  the 
curves  were  constructed  carefully,  so  that  along  the  en- 
tire line  there  was  no  splashing  or  slack  water  or  irregu- 
lar currents  ;  and,  furthermore,  the  water,  coming  from 
springs,  was  warm  and  the  distance  run  was  short. 

The  Wyoming  and  Dakota  Water  Company's  main 
conduit  from  Spearfish  was  designed  with  the  view  of 
conveying  water  to  the  mining  camps  of  Deadwood,  Cen- 
tral, and  Lead.  The  total  length  of  the  projected  line  to 
its  main  distributing  point  was  thirty-five  miles,  consisting 
of  twenty-six  miles  of  flume  (including  a  mile  of  tunnel 
and  approaches)  ;  two  and  three-fourth  miles  of  twenty- 
two-inch  diameter  wrought-iron  pipe  for  inverted  si- 
phons, crossing  depressions  from  thirty-four  feet  to  seven 
hundred  and  sixty-eight  feet;  thirty-five  hundred  feet  of 
trestle-work  (the  longest  piece  being  three  hundred  and 
ninety  feet  long  and  seventy-five  feet  high),  and  the  re- 
maining portion  of  the  line  was  to  have  been  ditched. 
The  capacity  of  the  conduit  was  estimated  at  1,000  twenty- 
four-hour  miner's  inches.  The  principal  supply  was  to 
have  been  drawn  from  a  reservoir  at  the  head  of  the 
Spearfish  River,  and  additional  amounts  were  to  have 
been  obtained  from  seven  different  tributaries  or  feeders 
along  the  line  of  work. 

Owing  to  conflicting  interests  and  litigation  this  ex- 
tensive work  was  never  completed.  The  accompanying 
plan  (Fig.  15)  is  a  profile  of  the  projected  line,  showing 
the  grade,  depressions,  and  work  completed  in  1879. 

Details  of  Construction. — In  constructing  a  line 
of  flume,  the  bed  being  prepared,  the  stringers  are  jnit  in 
place  and  the  sills  laid  on  them  four  feet  apart.  The  bot- 
tom planks  (the  ends  being  sawed  off  square)  are  then 
nailed  to  the  sills,  the  end  joints  being  carefull}*  fitted. 
The  side  planks  are  nailed  to  the  bottom  planks  and  to 
the  posts,  which  last  are  set  in  a  gain  in  the  sills,  an  occa- 
sional cap  in  the  beginning  being  placed  on  the  posts  to 
hold  the  flume  in  shape.     The  size  of  the  nails  for  planks, 


148  FLUMES. 

posts,  and  caps  depends  on  the  thickness  of  the  material, 
sixteen-penny  and  twenty-penny  nails  being  those  gene- 
rally used.  The  battens  are  securely  fastened  over  the 
various  joints  or  seams  with  six-penny  nails.  Each  box 
as  completed  is  carefully  set  on  the  established  grade  and 
firmly  held  in  position  with  wooden  wedges.  The  remain- 
ing caps  are  put  on  whenever  convenient. 

Where  a  flume  connects  with  a  ditch  the  posts  for  a 
distance  of  several  boxes  back  are  lengthened  sufificiently 
to  permit  of  the  introduction  of  an  additional  plank  on 
each  side.  The  end  boxes  of  the  flume  are  flared,  to  per- 
mit a  free  entrance  and  discharge  of  the  water.  An  outer 
siding,  nailed  to  the  posts,  at  the  junction  with  a  ditch,  or 
wherever  else  a  bank  of  earth  is  passed  through,  protects 
the  flume  and  also  strengthens  it  materially. 

When  large  amounts  of  lumber  are  to  be  used,  it  is  oc- 
casionall}-  economical  for  a  company  to  erect  a  portable 
saw-mill  and  cut  out  the  lumber.  In  most  cases,  how- 
ever, it  is  cheaper  to  contract  for  the  material  required. 

All  lumber  should  be  inspected  and  measured  by  a 
competent  scaler,  whose  duty  it  is  to  reject  all  knotty, 
sap,  wind-shaken  stuff,  and  slabs.  As  only  dimension  stuff 
is  used,  everything  should  be  prepared  at  the  mills  of  the 
exact  sizes  required,  so  that  the  flume  can  be  constructed 
as  rapidly  as  the  material  is  received. 

The  material  should  be  delivered  at  the  head  of  the 
flume,  or  at  such  convenient  places  as  the  engineer  may 
direct.  Lumber  stored  should  be  carefuU}-  piled,  and 
spaced  so  as  to  permit  a  free  circulation  of  air  through 
the  material. 

Sufficient  water  is  generally  obtained  along  the  line  of 
work,  and  is  turned  mto  the  flume  as  fast  as  constructed, 
to  assist  in  the  delivery  of  the  lumber  which  is  floated. 
A  few  inches'  depth  of  water  is  all  that  is  necessarv.  One 
or  two  or  more  men  are  required  to  attend  to  the  floating 
of  the  material,  according  to  the  distance. 

As  occasion  may  demand,   the    flume  is  trestled,   the- 


FLUMES.  149 

main  supports  being  placed  every  eight  to  twelve  feet. 
The  lumber,  scantling,  and  struts  for  bents  are  used  in 
accordance  with  the  demands  of  the  work.  The  founda- 
tions must  be  made  secure  to  hold  the  superstructure, 
and  no  mortises  used,  heavy  spikes  and  strong  timber 
and  braces  being  sufficient.  Guy  ropes  are  employed 
when  necessary  to  prevent  any  vibration  or  movement 
of  the  flume  caused  by  severe  wind  storms. 

It  is  the  usual  practice  to  distribute  along  the  line  of 
a  ditch  and  flume  a  certain  amount  of  lumber,  to  be 
ready,  in  case  of  accident,  for  repairing  any  breaks. 
Breaks  on  ditch  lines,  especially  during  the  winter,  are 
repaired  more  easily  with  pieces  of  flume  than  with  dirt. 
A  supply  of  ten  per  cent,  of  lumber  is  not  an  excessive 
amount  to  have  on  hand.  The  life  of  a  flume,  under  the 
best  of  circumstances  and  care,  will  not  exceed  twenty 
years,  and  generally  not  over  half  that  time. 

Lumber. — The  following  tables  show  the  amount  of 
lumber  required  in  the  construction  of  twelve-foot  flume- 
boxes  of  different  widths  and  depths  : 


TABLE  IX. 
Flume  two  and  one-half  feet  wide,  t-wo  and  one-half  feet  deep;  twelve-foot  box. 

3  Caps,  4  feet  longX   3  inches  X       4  inches.... 

6  Posts,  3     "     "     X   3        "       X       4      "       •••• 

9  Planks,  12     "       "   X    i^     "       X  ] 

(12      "       

3  Sills,                41^"  "   X   4  "  X  4       "  ...■ 

2  Stringers,      12     "  "X4  '"  X  6      "  .... 

6  Battens,        12     "  "   X   3  "  X  i      "       

I  Foot  plank,  12     "  "   Xio  "  X  i)^  "      


Total  lumber  in  one  box 

Number  of  boxes  per  mile 440 


=    12 

feet  b.m 

=   IS 

ii.      t( 

=135 

i(      i( 

=   IS 

" 

=  4S 

((      << 

=   iS 

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=  15 

it                  *  ' 

264 

feet  b.m 

1 50  FLUMES. 


TABLE  X. 


Flume  four  feet  wide,  three  feet  deep;   ttvelve-foot  box. 

Planks,  2  inches  thick,  12  feet  long =240  feet  b.m, 

6  Posts,  4  inches X   5  inchesX   3  feet  9  inches  long..  =  38 

3  Caps,  4       "     X   5        "     X  6    "     long =  30 

3  Sills,  4       "     X  6       "     X   8    "         "    =  48 

2  Stringers,       8       "     Xio       "     X12    "         "    =160 

6  Battens,  3       "     X    i        "     X12    "         "    =   18 

I  Foot  plank,  10       "     X  i^^    "     Xi2    "         "    =   15 

Total  lumber  in  one  box 549  feet  b.m. 


TABLE  XL 

Flume  seven  feet  wide,  four  feet  deep;  twelve- foot  box. 

Planks,  13^2  inches  thick,  12  feet  long =270  feet  b.m. 

6  Posts,  4  inchesX  6  inchesX  4  feet  4  inches  long.  =  52 

3  Caps,  4       "      X  6        "     X  9  "      4      "         "  =56 

3  Sills,  4       "     X8        "      X 10  feet  long =80 

2  Stringers,  8       "     X12       "     X12    "       "    =192 

8  Battens,  3       "     X    i        "     X12     "       "    =24 

I  Foot  plank,  10       "     X    i3^    "     Xi2    "       "    =   15 

Total  lumber  in  one  box 689  feet  b.m. 

Bracket  Flume.  —  A  novel  method  of  carrying 
flumes  along  the  face  of  precipitous  cliffs  has  been  de- 
signed by  W.  H.  Bellows  and  adopted  on  the  line  of  the 
Miocene  Mining  Compan3^'s  ditch  in  Butte  County,  to 
avoid  the  construction  of  a  trestle-work  one  hundred  and 
eighty-six  feet  high. 

The  line  of  ditch  was  run  some  two  hundred  yards  up 
the  caiion,  abutting  against  a  perpendicular  wall  of  ba- 
saltic rock,  along  the  face  of  which,  one  hundred  and 
eighteen  feet  above  the  bed  of  the  ravine  and  two  hun- 
dred and  thirty-two  feet  below  the  top  of  the  cliff,  the 
flume  was  carried  on  brackets  for  a  distance  of  four  hun- 
dred and  eighty-six  feet.  Fig.  16  gives  a  general  view, 
and  Fig.  17  shows  the  method  of  hanging  the  flume. 

The  brackets  are  made  of  T-rails  of  thirty-pound  rail- 
road iron  bent  into  the  form  of  an  L     The  longer  arm, 


FLUMES. 


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15: 


FLUMES. 


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U^ 


FLUMES.  153 

ten  feet  long,  is  placed  horizontally  (for  the  bed  of  the 
flume  to  rest  on),  with  its  end  supported  in  a  hole  drilled 
in  the  rock.  The  shorter  arm,  two  feet  long,  stands 
vertically  and  has  at  its  upper  end  an  eye  into  which 
hooks  a  suspender  of  three-fourth-inch  round  iron,  which 
in  turn  is  fastened  above  to  the  rock  by  means  of  a  ring- 
bolt soldered  into  a  hole  drilled  for  the  purpose.  The 
brackets  are  set  eight  feet  apart,  and  were  tested  to  sus- 
tain a  weight  of  fourteen  and  one-half  tons.  The  flume  is 
four  feet  wide  and  three  feet  deep,  mside  measurements, 
and  has  a  capacity  of  3,000  miner's  inches. 

The  general  view  shows  a  trestle  eighty-six  feet  high. 
Along  the  line  of  the  ditch  there  is  a  trestle  one  thousand 
and  eighty-eight  feet  long  and  eighty  feet  high  ;  another 
has  been  built  one  hundred  and  thirty-six  feet  high.  The 
total  length  of  ditch  and  flume  is  thirtj^-three  and  one- 
third  miles. 

Details  and  Costs  of  Milton  Ditch  and  Flumes. 
— The  following  official  statement  shows  the  details  and 
•cost  of  construction  of  the  Milton  ditch  and  flumes  from 
Eureka  to  Milton  Dam. 

Built  bv  the  North  Bloomfield  Gold-Mining  Company  in  the  years  of 
1872-3-4. 

Lengths. 

Eureka  to  South  Fork 563  chains=   7.04  miles. 

South  Fork  to  Drop-off. ... .        </>       *'     =   1.20     '• 

Drop-off  to  Milton 8g4       "     =11.17     " 

Total 1,553  chains=i9.4i   niiles, 

=  102,484  feet, 

measured  from  head  of  Eureka  drop-off  to  Milton  dam. 

Flumes. 

Eureka  to  South  Fork 961  twelve-foot  boxes  =  say,  li,5.'^t)  feel. 

South  Fork  to  Big  Bluffs 264       "         "         "     =    '•       3.16S    " 

Big  Bluffs  to  Milton 1,113       "          *'         "     =    "  13-352    " 

Total 2.333  twelve-foot  boxes  =  say,  28,056  feet. 

The  above  2,338  boxes  include  56  boxes  of  flume  built  in  the  ditch,  most  of 
which  is  supported  by  heavy  cribbing. 


154 


FLUMES. 


Waste-Ways. 

Eureka  to  South  Fork 14  wastes,  aggregating  112  feet. 

South  Fork  to  Big  Bluffs 12      "  "  48" 

Big  Bluffs  to  Milton 24      "  "  114    " 

Total 50  wastes,  aggregating  274  feet. 

There  are  also  several  branch  flumes,  one  large  crossing  flume,  and  about 
one  hundred  and  thirty  feet  of  ditch  lining. 

TABLE   XII. 

Cost  of  Milton  Ditch,  from  Milton  to  Eureka,  19.41  miles. 
Excavation,  etc.        • 


Ditch 

Dis- 
tance. 

Labor. 

Explo- 
sives. 

Tools. 

Steel. 

Coal. 

Totals. 

Miles. 
14. 1 

5-3 
19.4 

$69,664  92 

15,013  40 
3,582  01 

$4,098  46 
2.866  72 

$1,606  67 

52s  5° 
go  00 

$319  48      Snc-j   q8 

$76,642  91 

18,919  73 
3,672  01 

Flume  Foun- 
dation   

Clearing  Line. . 

213  00 

301  II 

19.4 

$88,260  33 

$6,965  18 

$2,222   17 

$532  48 

$1,254  49 

S99>234  65 

Flume. 
Lumber,  etc.,  Milton  to      Feet. 

lower  end  Big  Bluffs. .  1,083,434 
Less     sold     to     Milton  peet. 

Company 200,000    883,434 

Eureka  to  Big  Bluffs,  1,225  boxes    765,911 


Total  on  hand  and  used  for  2,338 

boxes 1,649,345  $32,015  28 


Note. — Of  the  above  amount  of  883,434 
feet  it  is  supposed  that  there  is  on  hand, 
say,  130,000  feet,  thus  leaving  750,000 
feet  as  the  amount  used  for  1,113  boxes 
from  Milton  to  lower  end  of  the  bluffs. 
Timbers  cut  by  hand,  stringers,  posts,  etc.  1,301  49 
Hauling   timber   to    Milton,    Little    Poor 

Man's,  etc 1,650  00 


,966  77 


Carry  forward $134,201  42 


FLUMES. 


155 


TABLE  y^W.— continued. 
Brought  forward $134,201  42 

Carpenters,  etc. 


Gang. 

Boxes 
12  ft.  long. 

Labor. 

Nails  and        rr     , 
Iron.            Tools. 

Totals. 

^24,559    85 

Young 

Marriott 

$10,902  81 
10,497  90 

$1,499  57 
1,559  57 

$50  00 
50  00 

$12,452  38 
12,107  47 

2,338 

$21,400  71 

$3,059  14 

$100  00 

$24,559  85 

General  Cost. 
Surveys. — Engineer    (who    was    also   fore- 
man) and  assistants $4,610  50 

Roads. — South     Fork    to    Bow- 
man's, 3^  miles. . $1,200  00 

South    Fork    to    Little    Poor 

Man's,  2]/i^  miles 200  00 

1,400  00 

Hauling. — Transportation  of  tools,  mate- 
rial, and  men 1,450  94 

Boarding. — Loss  in  boarding  laborers,  who 

were  charged  75  cents  per  day 6S5   75 

General  Expense. — Being  a  portion  of  North 
Bloomfield  Gravel- Mining  Company's 
cost  of  management,  office,  taxes,  etc., 
while  ditch  was  being  built 3,564  (>2) 


—    11,711  82 

Damages. 

Eureka  Lake  Company — damage  to  it  by  breaking  its 

miner's  ditch  by  blasts. .'. 11635  87 


Total  cost $172,108  96 

Collected   from   Milton  Company   for  account   extra 

work 6S9  30 


Leaving   Milton   Ditch  account  (November  10,  1874) 

on  Company's  books $171,419  66 


156 


FLUMES. 


Note. — If  the  130,000  feet  of  lumber  supposed  to  be  at  Milton 
is  sold  for  cost  ($20  per  thousand),  the  total  cost  of  the  ditch 
will  be  reduced  to  $169,508  96,  or,  say,  $8,700  per  mile.  In 
that  event — 

Cost  per  foot,  etc. 
Ditch. — 74,442    feet    long,    cost    for,  say,   117,600    cubic    yards, 

$76,642  91,  or  65  cents  per  cubic  yard,  or  $1  03  per  lin.  foot. 
Flume. — 28,056  feet  long,  cost  for  excavation  ^ 
$18,919  73,  or  67  cents  per  lin.  foot. . . 


cost  for  lumber,  labor,  etc. 
$212  per  lin.  foot. 


,526  62,  or 


)2  79  per  lin.  foot. 


The  ditch  is  graded  in  from  slope  pegs  from  6  to  36 


Grade  32 'j)er  JWiZe. 


JHode  of  securing  a  flume 
on  the  ^fountain  side. 


Fig.  i8.  Milton  Flume. 


inches.    The  general  grade  is  19.2  feet  per  mile.    All  trees 
within  15  to  25  feet  of  the  edge  of  the  upper  bank  are  cut. 


J 


TABLE    XIII. 
Dimtmion,  »W  C./j  »/  DiUk,  U'i'Ming  Fhimii). 


FLUMES.  157 

The  logs,  brush,  and  leaves  from  the  lower  bank  (under 
the  artificial  bank)  are  carefully  removed.  The  founda- 
tion is  generally  cut  for  the  entire  width  of  the  flume. 
The  sketch  (Fig.  18)  shows  the  method  of  posting  along 
cliffs,  where  the  foundation  is  occasionally  narrower 
than  the  flume.  Where  flumes  connect  with  the  ditch, 
the  posts  of  the  flumes,  for  a  distance  of  several  boxes, 
are  4  to  4^^  feet  high,  allowing  an  additional  side  plank. 
The  grade  of  the  flume  is  32  feet  per  mile.  The  planking 
is  2  inches  thick. 


CHAPTER  XI. 


PIPES    AND    NOZZLES. 


Wrought-Iroii  Pipes. — Wrought-iron  pipe  is  used 
extensively  in  California  on  account  of  its  cheapness  of 
construction,  its  adaptability  for  crossing  depressions,  the 
facilit}'  with  which  it  can  be  moved  (changes  of  the  posi- 
tion of  the  line  being  often  necessary),  and  other  advan- 
tages arising  from  its  lightness  combined  with  great  ten- 
sile strength. 

It  is  used  as — 

(i)  A  water-conduit,  replacing  ditches  and  flumes. 
Where  largq  depressions  are  crossed  it  is  called  an  "  in- 
verted siphon." 

(2)  A  "  supply  or  feed  pipe,"  conveying  water  from 
the  "  pressure  box  "  to  the  claim. 

(3)  A  "  distributing  pipe,"  taking  the  water  from  the 
"distributer,"  or  "gates,"  at  the  end  of  the  supply  pipe, 
and  delivering  it  to 

(4)  the  "discharge  pipe  "  or  "nozzle." 

Large  mining  companies  often  have  their  pipes  con- 
structed at  their  own  workshops,  although  generally  the 
iron  plates  of  proper  size  and  thickness  are  punched  and 
rolled  before  delivery,  and  put  together  on  the  claim. 

Inverted  Siphons.— According  to  Father  Secchi. 
there  is  near  the  town  of  Alatri,  in  Italy,  an  "  inverted 
siphon  "  with  a  depression  of  three  hundred  and  thirt}-- 
eight  feet,  supposed  to  have  been  constructed  by  the 
Romans  two   hundred   years    before  Christ.     The   pipes 

158 


PIPES   AND   NOZZLES. 


159 


are  of  earthenware,  embedded  in  concrete,  and  are  said  to 
be  still  in  a  good  state  of  preservation.  There  is,  there- 
fore, no  novelty  in  the  construction  of  this  kind  of  water- 
conduit  ;  but  the  use  of  wrought-iron  pipe  for  this  pur- 
pose was  ver}'  limited  until  adopted  in  California,  where 
it  has  been  very  largely  employed,  and  where  there  have 
been  obtained  valuable  data  of  the  strength  of  materials 
and  methods  of  construction,  as  well  as  of  the  flow  of 
water  through  long  pipes,  essentially  modifying  theories 
and  formulas  previously  accepted. 

Thickness  of  Iron. — The  thickness  of  the  iron  is 
determined  by  the  pressure  of  the  water  and  the  diame- 
ter of  the  pipe,  allowance  being  made,  of  course,  for  the 
quahty  of  the  material  and  the  method  of  riveting.  The 
factor  of  safety  against  damage  from  accident  is  regu- 
lated by  the  importance  of  the  line.  On  account  of  va- 
riations in  plates  marked  as  being  of  the  same  size  and 
number,  it  would  be  well,  as  a  precautionary  measure,  to 

TABLE   XIV.  ■♦ 

Thickness  and  Weight  of  the   Pnncipal  Sizes  of  Iron  used  for  Hydraulic 

Pipe. 


No. 
B.  G. 

Thickness. — Inches. 

Weight  per 
sq.    ft.— 
Pounds. 

No. 
B.  G. 

Thickness. — Inches. 

Weight  per 
sq.    ft.— 
Pounds. 

18 

.049 

1.98 

6 

.203 

8.20 

16 

^+=.065 

2.62 

4 

.238 

9.61 

14 

.083 

3.35 

3 

.    :^+=.259 

10.47 

12 

.109 

4.40 

i         2 

.2S4 

11.48 

II 

^-=.120 

4-85 

I 

^^-=•300 

12.13 

10 

•134 

5-41 

0 

•340 

13.74 

8 

.165 

6.66 

00 

§+=.380 

15-36 

7 

^-=.180 

7.27 

l6o  PIPES   AND   NOZZLES. 

weigh  each  plate  used,  as  thereb}"  any  essential  difference 
in  thickness  could  be  detected.  Iron  plates  which  have 
been  subjected  to  the  action  of  salt  water  are  undesirable. 

The  Spring  Valley  Water  Company,  of  San  Francisco, 
California,  strain  their  pipes  from  11,400  to  13,000  lbs.  per 
sectional  inch. 

The  Virginia  City  and  Gold  Hill  Water  Company,  of 
Nevada,  has  an  inverted  siphon  (of  inferior  English  iron) 
with  a  maximum  pressure  of  1,720  feet  head,  equal  to 
746  lbs.  per  square  inch,  No.  o  iron,  with  f^-inch  rivets, 
being  used  at  the  lowest  point  of  depression  and  sub- 
jected to  a  tensile  strain  of  13,310  lbs.  The  No.  9  iron 
is  strained  fully  15,000  lbs.,  and  the  No.  7  over  14,000 
lbs.,  per  sectional  inch. 

The  Texas  Creek  pipe,  four  miles  below  the  Bow- 
man Dam,  Nevada  County,  California,  is  an  inverted 
siphon  4,438.7  feet  long,  17  inches  in  diameter,  made  of 
riveted  plate  iron.  Its  inlet  is  303  feet  above  the  outlet, 
and  with  a  full  head  it  will  discharge  about  1,260  miner's 
inches.  It  sustains  a  maximum  pressure  of  770  feet  or 
334  lbs.  per  square  inch.* 

At  Cherokee,f  California,  there  is  an  inverted  siphon 
of  ordinary  English  plate,  30  inches  in  diameter,  with  a 
maximum  pressure  of  887  feet  head. 

The  maximum  strains  on  the  several  sizes  of  iron  used 
in  practice  are  given  in  the  following  tables : 

*  See  Official  Report  North  Bloomfield  Mining  Co.,  1878. 
t  For  further  description  see  p.  172. 


TABLE    XV. 
TnniU  Stuun  on  \r,ou:-hl-lro,i   Pipr. 


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ffl? 

P...... 

iS-sS. 

r... 

» 

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,..»^ 

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);; 

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.... 

J'! 

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:.:: 

[L.ng.hofl[n..3j»'.                                                                                         ' 

|?'TisT'°.nTi 

l«"'"" 

(TbU,i^«..».'lo.s. 

PIPES   AND    NCJZZLES. 


iGl 


03 

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10 
10 

to 

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to         -Ij          b\        en 
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10    — 

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10    c»tO   C»C    C>C04-<-n   >H 

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1 62 


PIPES   AND   NOZZLES. 


Riveting. — For  ordinary  pipe  under  light  pressure  a 
very  common  style  is  to  have  the  seams  single-riveted,  the 
rivets  (say  }i  of  an  inch  in  diameter  for  an  i  i-inch  pipe) 
being  spaced  i  or  134^  inch  apart  on  the  longitudinal 
seams,  and  sometimes  as  much  as  3  inches  apart  on  the 
circular  seams.  Pipe  thus  put  together  becomes  water- 
tight in  use  through  the  particles  which  naturally  float 
in  the  water,  or  can  be  made  so  by  throwing  in  a  few 
bags  of  sawdust  or  shovelfuls  of  dirt,  and  will  remain 
light  even  when  subjected  to  a  pressure  as  great  as  200 
lbs.  per  square  inch. 

For  heavy  pressures  and  more  careful  construction  the 
circular  seams  have  a  single  row  of  rivets  i  inch  apart, 
while  the  longitudinal  seams  are  double-riveted,  with 
rivets  spaced  i  inch  apart  in  two  rows  about  j4  inch  from 
each  other. 

Cold-riveting  is  common.  In  very  particular  work 
only  is  hot-riveting  resorted  to. 

TABLE   XVIL 

Sizes  of  Rivets  used  in  General  Practice. 

No.  18  and  16  iron,  fVXK  ^o.  10.9  and  8  iron,  %X  % 

"     14  "      r%XH      ■  "       7     and  6      "     J^Xi^ 


12  and  II 


iXfi 


1X1} 


TABLE   XVin. 

Details  of  Riveting  a  22-inck  Pipe  of  the  Spring  Valley  Water  Co. 


QJ 

1 

u 

lA    U, 

in    1     r 

V    >   V 

j= 

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No.  12 

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Min. 

I  in. 

69 

i?8  in- 

H  in. 

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A  " 

fi   " 

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69 

iM   " 

%   " 

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59 

full  ItV   " 

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39 

"    lU  " 

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lA  " 

39 

"    lU  " 

lA  " 

PIPES   AND   NOZZLES. 


163 


Joints. — The  pipes  in  general  use  in  the  mines  are 
II,  15,  22,  30,  and  40  inches  in  diameter,  of  riveted  sheet 
iron  Nos.  8,  10,  12,  14,  or  16  (Birmingham  gauge)  made 
in  sections  of  30  to  36  inches,  riveted  into  lengths  of  about 
20  to  30  feet,  which  latter  are  very  frequentlv  put  to- 
gether in  stove-pipe  fashion,  neither  rivets,  wire,  nor  other 
contrivance  being  necessary  to  hold  the  joints  in  place. 
This  stove-pipe  connection  is  sufficient  in  ordinary  cases. 
When  it  will  not  suffice  iron  collars  and  lead  joints  are 
used. 

The  annexed  sketch  (Fig.  20)  shows  the  style  of  joint 


Fig.  20.  Lead  Joint. 


originally  used  on  the  siphon  of  the  Virginia  City  and 
Gold  Hill  Water  Company. 

The  cut  shows  the  joint  which  is  made  between  every 
two  lengths  of  pipe,  or  26  feet  2  inches :  a  is  a.  wrought- 
iron  collar,  5  inches  wide,  -^  of  an  inch  thicker  than  the 
iron  of  the  pipe,  and  with  a  play  of  ^  of  an  inch  between 
the  inside  of  the  collar  and  the  outside  of  the  pipe  ;  d  is 
the  lead,  which  is  run  in  and  then  calked  tight  from  both 
sides  ;  f  is  a  nipple  of  No.  9  iron,  6  inches  in  width,  rivet- 
ed on  one  end  of  each  pipe  b}'  means  of  six  3  8-inch 
rivets. 


164 


PIPES   AND   NOZZLES. 


Fig.  21  shows  the  method  of  tightening  leaky  joints  : 
a  shows  the  clamp  and  its  ap[)lication  for  forcing  back  the 
lead   which  has   worked  out  through  the  expansion  and 


contraction  of  the  pipe.  This  is  shown  both  in  perspec- 
tive and  in  cross  section.  The  clamp  b  is  used  to  keep 
the  lead  in  place  after  it  has  been   forced    back  by  the 


PIPES   AND    NOZZLES. 


165 


clamp  a.  The  two  lower 
sketches  of  this  clamp  /; 
show  both  the  side  view 
and  the  elevation. 

Fig.  22  shows  the  elbow 
used  in  making  short  curves. 
a  a  are  angle  irons  riveted 
on  the  pipe  on  the  outside 
of  the  curves,  and,  by  means 
of    iron    straps,    connected 


1 66 


PIPES   AND   NOZZLES. 


with  the  corresponding  angle  irons  on  the  next  pipe,  as 

denoted  in  Fig.  23,  which 
shows  the  manner  in  which 
the  pipes  and  elbows  were 
strapped  together  when- 
ever the  curve  was  suffi- 
ciently short  to  require  this 
precaution  against  an  out- 
ward movement. 

Air  -  Valves,      Blow- 
offs. — On    a    long    line   of 
pipe,   or    a   siphon,   "  blow- 
offs  "  and  air-valves  are  pro- 
vided to  allow   the   escape 
of   the    air   from    the    pipe 
while  filling,  and  especially 
to  prevent  a  collapse  of  the 
pipe   in   case    of    a    break. 
The   valves   in   use    are  of 
varied  make.     A  simple  construction  is  a  piece  of  leather 
loaded  on  the  inside  of  the  pipe,  and  arranged  to  cover 
an  opening  from   i  inch  to  4  inches  in  diameter.     A  bet- 


FiG.  24,  Air- Valve  for  22"  Water- 
Pipes. 


Fig.  25. 


ter  class  of   valve  is  shown  in   Fig.  24. 


PIPES   AND   NOZZLES. 


167 


This  sinks  and  opens  when  the  water  leaves  it,  and 
floats  and  shuts  when  the  water  rises  to  it. 

The  contrivances  used  on  the  Virginia  City  and  Gold 
Hill  Water  Company's  siphon  are  shown  in  Figs.  25 
and   26. 

Fig.  25  shows  the  blow-off  used  in  every  low  place 
(also  marked  with  a  triangle  in  the  profile,  Fig.  27). 

Fig.  26  shows  the  self-acting  air  or  vacuum  valve  used 
at  each  high  point  on  the 
line.  When  the  water  is  on, 
the  valve  a  is  kept  open  and 
the  valve  c  closed,  while  the 
self-acting  valve  b  is  shut  by 
the  pressure.  If  any  air  ac- 
cumulates in  the  pipe  it  is 
blown  off  occasionally  by 
opening  the  cock,  c.  Should 
a  break  occur  in  the  main 
pipeTine  at  a  point  lower 
than  the  air- cock,  and  within 
its  district,  the  valve  b  falls 
down  and  admits  the  air  so 
as  to  prevent  a  vacuum. 
After  a  break  on  the  main 
line  is  repaired  and  the  water 
is  let  on  again,  the  valve  b  being  down  or  open,  the  air 
rushes  out,  the  valve-stem  being  weighted,  d,  so  as  to 
close  only  when  the  water  reaches  it. 

Preservation  against  Rust  and  Accidents. — 
In  order  to  protect  the  pipe  it  should  (as  far  as  possible) 
be  laid  in  a  trench  and  covered  with  earth  to  a  depth 
of  at  least  one  foot  for  the  ordinary  conditions  of  hvdrau- 
lic  mining. 

Wr(^ught-iron  pipes  should  be  treated  extei'nallv  and 
internallv  with  asphaltum  or  coal-tar,  the  life  of  a  pipe 
being  dependent  to  a  verv  great  extent  upon  this  bitu- 
minous coating,  which  preserves  the  iron  from  rust  and 


Fig.  26.  Self-acting  Air-Valve. 


l68  PIPES    AND    NOZZLES. 

the  corroding  action  of  water.  Thin  iron  pipes  well  coat- 
ed are  still  in  good  condition  after  fifteen  years  of  ser- 
vice. 

The  following  preparations  have  been  found  valuable 
in  practice  : 

Crude  asphaltum 2S      percent. 

Coal-tar  (free  from  oily  substances) 72        "       " 

Or 

Refined  asphaltum 163^  per  cent. 

Coal-tar  (free  from  oily  substances) 831^    "     " 

The  (Santa  Barbara)  asphaltum,  in  small  pieces,  and 
the  coal-tar  are  heated  to  about  400  degrees  Fahr.  and 
well  stirred.  The  pipe  is  thoroughly  dried  and  immerssd 
in  the  mixture,  where  it  remains  until  it  acquires  the 
same  temperature  as  the  mixture.  When  coated  it  is 
removed,  placed  on  a  trestle  to  drip  and  dry  in  the  sun 
and  air.  For  convenience  of  immersion  wrought-iron 
troughs,  some  30  feet  long,  3  feet  wide,  and  2  feet  deep, 
are  used.  No.  14  iron  requires  immersion  for  about  7 
minutes,  and  No.  6  for  12  to  15  minutes. 

Filling:  Pipes. — A  pipe-line  being  finished,  water 
must  be  admitted  in  such  a  way  as  to  prevent  the  air 
from  being  sucked  in,  which  will  happen  (and  to  a  great 
extent)  unless  care  is  taken.  The  best  plan  is  to  put  a 
gate  in  the  pipe  below  the  level  where  the  water  enters, 
and  thus  i"egulate  the  flow,  maintaining  a  steady  pres- 
sure and  avoiding  violent  oscillations.  The  common  plan 
of  admitting  the  water  through  a  pen-stock,  which  is  kept 
filled  so  that  the  water  is  quiet,  will  answer  if  proper  care 
is  exercised. 

STATISTICS   OF   PIPE-LINES. 

La  Grange  Hydraulic  Mining  Company. — The 

following  are  the  details  of  the  cost  and  construction 
of  i>233>^  feet  of  22-inch  wrought-iron  pipe  made  at  the 
works  of  the  La  Grange  Hydraulic  Mining  Company, 
Stanislaus  County,  California. 

The  iron  used  was  No.  16,  U.  S.  wire  gauge,  or  0.05 


PIPES   AND   NOZZLES.  169 

inch  thick.  The  pipe  sections  averaged  19  feet  in  length, 
containing  each  8  sheets  of  iron  6  by  3  feet.  The  laps 
were  i^  inches  at  the  joints  and  single-riveted,  the  rivets 
being  driven  i^^  inches  from  centre  to  centre  in  ^^^-inch- 
diameter  holes.  To  each  sheet  of  iron  'jj  rivets  were  used, 
28  on  the  longitudinal  and  49  on  the  circular  seams.  The 
heads  of  the  rivets  were  ^  inch  in  diameter  by  -^^  inch 
thick,  and  the  shanks  ^  inch  in  diameter  by  0.44  inch 
long.  The  rivets  weighed  about  yi  ounce  each,  or  128  to 
the  pound. 

COST    OF    ONE    RUNNING    FOOT    OF    PIPE. 

Iron  57  6  sq.  ft.,  or  11.82  lbs.,  at  4  cts $0  53 

Rivets,  32,  or  0.25  lb.,  at  13  cts o  03 

Punching  and  rolling  o  12 

Freight  on  iron  and  rivets,  at  i  ct.  per  lb. .    o  12 

Labor  contract  per  foot o  25 

Tarring o  03 

Total  cost  per  running  foot $1  oS 

TABLE   XIX. 

North  Blooinfield.— yi.  Cost  of  iron  pipe  at  North 
Bloomfield,  22  inches  diameter.  No.  10  iron,  double-riveted, 
per  length  of  17  feet  3  inches: 

Six  sheets  iron  36"  X  72",  No.  10  =  540  lbs.,   at      4.38  cts $23  65 

Freight,  Sacramento  to  Bloomfield,  "'    80        "    4  32 

Rivets,  ^\"Xf"  =  i2  lbs.,  "    10       "   i  20 

Labor  by  contract,  17' 3",                                       "  25        "  per  ft..     4  31 

Wear  and  tear  of  tools,  3  cts.  per  foot;  tarring,  "  3        "       "             i  03 

Total  cost  of  17'  3"  length $34  51 

or  $2  per  lineal  foot. 


B.  Cost  of  iron  pipe  22  inches  diameter.  No.  12  iron, 
double-riveted,  per  length  of  17  feet  3  inches: 

Si.K  sheets  No.  12  iron,  36"  X  72"  =  4S0  lbs.,  at    4. 38  cts $21  02 

Freight,  Sacramento  to  North  Bloomfield,  "80         " 3  84 

Rivets,  y^g"Xi"  =  10  lbs.,  "10         "    i  00 

Labor,  "  21         "  per  ft. .     3  62 

Wear  and  tear  of  tools,  and  tarring,  "     6        "     "  i  03 

Total  cost  of  17'  3"  length $30  51 

or  $1  77  per  lineal  foot. 


170  PIPES   AND    NOZZLES. 

The  above  pipe  was  double-riveted  on  the  longitudi- 
nal seams,  and  smgle-riveted  on  the  circular  seams.  The 
long-seam  rivets  were  spaced  i3^  inches;  the  rows  were 
I  inch  apart.  The  circular-seam  rivets  were  spaced  i^ 
inches  apart.  The  sheets  of  iron  were  not  cut,  but 
punched  so  as  to  make  a  pipe  full  22  inches  diameter. 

The  No.  10  iron  is  used  under  450  feet  head,  with  noz- 
zles as  small  as  six  inches  in  diameter.  The  No.  12  iron 
is  used  under  410  foot  head,  with  nozzle  as  small  as  y% 
inches  in  diameter. 

The  cost  of  an  outfit  of  tools  for  large-pipe  making 
(iron  up  to  No.  10,  B.  G.)  is  as  follows : 

Rollers $150  oo 

Stake 50  00 

Punch 100  00 

Hammer  and  tools 25  00 

Fitting  up,  etc 75  00 

Total $400  00 

Spring  Valley  Water  Company,  San  Francisco. 

— The  following  figures,  *  given  in  tabular  form,  show  the 
details  of  the  construction  of  an  1 8-inch  wrought-iron 
pipe,  5,800  feet  long,  made  for  the  Spring  Valley  Water 
Company,  which  supplies  the  city  of  San  Francisco. 
This  pipe  has  a  tensile  strain  of  about  5,000  or  6,ooQ 
lbs.  per  sectional  inch,  and  was  made  with  this  low  co- 
efficient in  order  to  withstand  the  pulsations  caused 
by  a  single-acting  plunger  pump  making  as  high  as  36 
(four-foot)  strokes  per  minute.  These  pulsations  in  prac- 
tice vary  from  5  to  9  lbs.  per  stroke  when  the  air-vessel 
is  properly  charged,  but  through  carelessness  they  may 
exceed  50  pounds. 

*  Details  by  Joseph  Moore,  Superintendent  of  the  Risdon  Iron-Works,  San  Francisco. 


PIPES   AND   NOZZLES. 


171 


^ 

J^ 

i^ 

i^ 

i^ 

is: 

i\ 

J 

ON 

3* 

Thickness  of  the  bands. 

J'' 

^ 

4^ 

S: 

^ 

■o- 

S: 

p" 

Width  of  the  bands. 

^0 

■0 

0 

0 

- 

- 

= 

- 

p 

Thickness  of  the  sleeves. 

S: 

X 

S: 

S: 

^ 

S: 

S: 

S: 

3 

Width  of  the  sleeves. 

% 

0 

t 

0 

t 

-p. 

t 

*• 

3 

Width  of  the  sheets  used  in 
the  pipes. 

s 

" 

= 

- 

2; 
0  0 

1 

ON 

ON 

ix 

3 

Thickness  of  the  iron  used 
in  the  pipes. 

o\ 

1 

1 

ON 

M 
ON 

^ 

;^ 

;s 

il^ 

3 

Diameter  of  rivets  used. 

*• 

0 

0 

-b 

NO 

M 

NO 
•-4 

M 
NO 

NO 

NO 

3 

Pitch  of  the  circle  seams  in 
the  outside  courses. 

t 
w 
^ 

1 

0 

0 
VO 

0 

0 

0 
'-n 

0 

1 

3 

Pitch  of  the  circle  seams  in 
the  inside  courses. 

^ 

u\ 

Cn 

On 

On 

« 

» 

« 

3 

Amount  of  two  laps. 

b> 

as 

b» 

ON 

On 

M 

5 

0 

0 

3 

Space  betvi^een  double  row. 

ON 

On 

On 

0 

ON 

So 

On 
On 
NO 

p 

Length  to  the  joining  holes 
in  the  outside  courses. 

b 

b 

3\ 

ON 

ON 

Cn 

4^ 

0 

V 

0 

0 

3 

Length  to  the  joining  holes 
in  the  inside  courses. 

0 

0 

Co 

NO 
ON 

8n 

^0 
Vi 

"P 
0 

NO 

NO 

3 

Whole  length  of  the  outside 
courses. 

i) 

0 

b 

•0 

b 

NO 

;§ 

1 

00 

M 

3 

Whole  length  of   the  inside 
courses. 

00 

00 

"S. 

00 

%, 

0 

s 

NO 

3 

Spaces  in  the  circle  seams. 

s 

s 

g 

g 

00 

■^ 

w 

■^ 

3* 

Pitch  of  the  double  row. 

4» 

JS 

o\ 

<s 

On 

•a 

g 

N 

3 

Spaces  in  the  double  row. 

S> 

b 

b 

0 

1 

19 

0 

4^ 

3 

Amount  of  the  two  outside 
spaces  of  the  double  row. 

^ 

iS 

0; 

iS 

1 

u 

to 

H 

3 

Amount  of  two  laps  for  the 
double  row. 

'^ 

:> 

•J 

^ 

•^i 

> 

~- 

w 

<^ 

w 

^ 

X 

c^    ^ 


-^^ 


:^ 


-^ 


.^^ 


Si 


172  PIPES   AND   NOZZLES. 

Virginia  City  Water-Works.— The  Virginia  and 
Gold  Hill  Water  Company  have  an  inverted  siphon 
across  the  Washoe  Valley,  Nevada,  7  miles  long,  ii}4 
inches  in  diameter,  of  riveted  wrought  iron.  The  total 
weight  of  the  siphon  is  about  700  tons.  The  pipes  were 
hot-riveted,  with  a  single  row  on  the  circular  and  a  dou- 
ble row  on  the  longitudinal  seams,  a  million  rivets  being 
used.  The  separate  lengths  were  united  b}-  lead  joints, 
previously  described  (see  p.  163).  For  these  35  tons  of 
lead  were  required.  The  pipe  was  constructed  in  1872 
of  inferior  English  iron,  but  is  still  (1883)  in  good  con- 
dition. The  No.  9  iron  is  strained  fully  15,000  lbs.,  and 
the  No.  7  over  14,000  lbs.,  per  sectional  inch.  The  pipe 
is  said  to  have  been  tested  to  a  pressure  of  1,400  lbs.  per 
square  inch. 

The  annexed  sketch  (Fig.  27)  shows  the  profile.  The 
numbers  along  the  line  give  the  thickness  of  iron,  B.  G., 
used  under  the  various  pressures  which  are  indicated  in 
the  perpendicular  columns  of  figures  from  100  to  1,700 
(feet),  at  the  points  where  the  parallel  lines  strike  the  pro- 
file. The  triangles  below  the  line  denote  the  locations  of 
the  blow-offs,  and  0,  above  the  line,  represents  the  air- 
valves.  These  have  been  previously  described  (see  pp. 
166,  167). 

Spring  Valley  and  Clierokee  Hydraulic  Mining 
Conii>any. — At  Cherokee,  Butte  County,  California,  the 
Spring  Valley  and  Cherokee  H.  M.  Company  has  an  in- 
verted siphon  of  wrought  ii"on,  30  inches  in  diameter, 
which  discharges  53  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second.  This 
was  the  first  large  construction  of  the  kind  on  the  coast. 
It  has  been  in  continuous  use  for  12  years,  and  is  still 
in  good  condition.  The  material  was  ordinary  English 
plate.     The  greatest  pressure  is  887  feet. 

The  sketch  *  (taken  from  the  original  survey)  shows 
the  profile  and  the  different  sizes  of  iron  used.    The  maxi- 

*  The  Mining  and  Scientific  Press  of  January  7,  1S71,  contains  a  detailed  account  of 
the  construction  of  this  pipe  and  a  diagram  of  the  line. 


PIPES   AND   NOZZLES. 


173 


174 


PIPES   AND   NOZZLES. 


mum   strains   on   each    size  are  given    in    the   following' 
table : 

TABLE    XXI. 
Details  of  Spring  Valley  and  Cherokee  Pipe. 


Size  of  Iron. 

Greatest  Pressure. 

Maximum  tensile 

strain,  in  pounds 

per  sectional  inch. 

Birmingham 
Gauge. 

Feet  head. 

Pounds  per 
square  inch. 

No.     14 

"          12 
"          II 
"          10 

7 

3 

"         I 

"       00 

170 

288 
293 

355 
435 
594 
842 

S87 

74 
125 
127 

154 

188 

257 
365 
384 

13,374 
17,202 

15,875 
17,240 
15,080- 
15.420 

17,549 
15,360 

Flow  of  Water  tlirougli  Pipes.— A  series  of  ex- 
periments on  the  flow  of  water  through  circular  pipes 
was  made  by  Hamilton  Smith,  Jr.,  at  the  works  of  the 
North  Bloomfield  Mining  Company  and  at  New  Alma- 
den,  in  Santa  Clara  County,  California.  The  details  of 
these  experiments  were  communicated  by  him  to  the 
American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers. 

The  following  table  (XXIL),  compiled  by  Mr.  Smith, 
shows  the  results  of  88  experiments  as  to  the  discharge 
of  water  through  circular  pipes  "  varymg  from  4  feet 
to  Yi  inch  in  diameter,"  and  with  velocities  varying  from 
20  feet  to  yi  of  a  foot  per  second.  The  standard  of  mea- 
sure used  was  that  of  the  United  States  Coast  Sur- 
vey. The  temperature  of  the  water  in  Nos.  35  to  87  was 
about  65°  Fahr.;  in  the  other  experiments,  from  50°  to 
55°  Fahr. 


Five-eighths-inch  new  gas-pipe,  no  funnel. 

One-inch  glass  pipe,  with  funnel. 

Three-fourths-inch  glass  pipe,  no  funnel. 

One-half-inch  glass  pipe,  no  funnel. 

Wooden  one-and-a-quarter-inch  pipe,  no  funjicl. 
Pipe  carefully  tarred  and  comparatively  new. 


c 


TABLE   XXII. 


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Oo.-lul(.iucl.  bLu.  Pip.,  "o  luoud. 

*ai, 

J 

S 

si 

::| 

s 

.Boo 

'i 

t| 

il 

tS 

Ill 

|i 

1 

„. 

.,. 

ood                 d 

ru..d. 

,oo«4» 

14(9 

1 

■*U 

G 


PIPES  AND   NOZZLES. 


1/5 


176  PIPES   AND   NOZZLES. 

The  experiments  are  all  reduced  to  the  formula : 


where  v  =  velocit}^  in  English  feet  per  second. 

d  =  mean  diameter. 
/  =  length. 

//'  =  effective  head. 

VI  =  variable  coefficients. 
"  The  effective  head  /i'  was  derived  from  the  total  head 
/i  as  follows,    c   being   coefficient   of   contraction   at   en- 
trance :  "  * 


2gc' 


THE   PRESSURE   BOX. 

The  pressure  box  is  situated  at  the  end  of  the  ditch  in 
a  commanding  position  above  the  claim,  and  from  it  the 
water  is  delivered  into  the  supply  pipe.  The  box  derives  its 
name  from  the  fact  that  the  head  or  pressure  is  measured 
from  this  point.  Connected  with  or  forming  a  part  of  the 
pressure  box  is  the  sand  box,  which  is  sunk  below  the 
level  of  the  flume  or  ditch,  and  arranged  to  catch  the 
gravel  or  sand  carried  along  by  the  current.  It  is  emp- 
tied by  a  side  gate  as  circumstances  may  require. 

The  pressure  box  is  a  large  wooden  receptacle,  gene- 
rally constructed  of  i^^-inch  planks,  and  securely  held 
together  with  timbers.  It  is  sufficiently  large  and  deep 
to  keep  the  head  of  the  pipe,  which  enters  it,  under  water 
with  a  steady  pressure. 

A  grating  of  bars  is  arranged  to  catch  all  floating  ma- 
terial, such  as  sticks  and  leaves.  The  water  should  be 
quiet  and  sufficiently  deep  to  prevent  any  air  from  being 
carried  into  the  pipe.  For  this  purpose  the  box  is  divided 
into  compartments,  one  of  which  receives  the  water  and 

*  See  "  Trans,  of  the  Am.  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,"  vol.  xii.  No.  204,  pp.  120-123. 


^> 


PIPES    AND    NOZZLES.  177 

»(Uietly  tlischarges  it  into  the  second  through  lateral  open- 
ings. Ihere  should  be  no  perceptible  difference  between 
the  water-supply  and  the  discharge,  or,  if  any,  the  former 
should  be  in  excess,  and  the  surplus  should  be  regulated 
and  discharged  by  a  waste-gate  placed  near  the  end  of 
the  flume.  Some  pressure  boxes  are  arranged  for  two 
pipes. 

L.a  Gri'tiiig'e  Pressure  Box. — The  following  is  a  de- 
scription of  a  pressure  box  at  the  La  Grange  Mine,  Stan- 
islaus County : 

Some  350  feet  to  the  rear  of  the  pressure  box  there  is 
a  sand  box  in  the  ditch  connecting  with  the  waste-way. 
This  sand  box  is  2  feet  deep  (below  the  bottom  of  the 
ditch),  4  feet  wide,  and  4  feet  3  inches  long,  and  com- 
municates with  the  waste-way  by  means  of  a  gate  which 
slides  clear  to  the  bottom  of  the  box.  At  the  pressure 
box  the  four  end  posts  and  the  two  caps  belonging  to 
them  are  made  of  6"x8"  lumber.  The  six  intermediate 
posts,  three  on  a  side,  are  of  6"x6"  material,  and  their 
caps  are  of  the  same  dimensions.  All  the  sills,  and  the  two 
longitudinal  stringers  on  which  they  rest,  are  of  6"X8" 
*'  stuff."  Up  to  high-water  mark  the  box  has  a  double 
lining  made  of  two  i^-inch  planks  battened  at  the  joints 
with  strips  y^  inch  by  4  inches.  A  22-inch  pipe  takes  the 
water.  Nine  feet  from  the  box  there  is  a  5-inch  diameter 
stand  pipe  which  extends  2  feet  above  the  top  of  the  pres- 
sure box. 

In  large  claims  the  pressure  box  ranges  from  10  to  20 
feet  in  length  with  a  single  pipe,  and,  where  two  pipes  are: 
used,  from  12  to  30  feet.  Larger  boxes  are  also  built 
where  the  pressure,  sand,  and  measuring  boxes  are  com- 
bined in  one. 

The  pressure  box  at  the  Bloomfield  Mine  is  18  feet 
long  and  6  feet  wide,  so  arranged  that  the  sand  falls 
under  a  wooden  diaphragm  into  a  large  chamber  pro- 
vided with  a  gate. 


178  PIPES   AND    NOZZLES. 

THE   SUPPLY   OR   FEED    PIPES. 

The  water  is  conveyed  in  iron  feed  pipes  from  the 
■pressure  box  to  the  claim,  and  by  means  of  iron  gates  on 
'  the  lower  end  of  the  feed  pipes  it  is  distributed  to  the 
discharge  pipes.  The  supply  pipe  is  funnel-shaped  where 
it  connects  with  the  pressure  box,  and  from  there  on  it  is 
usually  of  uniform  diameter  as  far  as  the  gate  or  discharge 
nozzle. 

Where  22  to  30-inch  pipes  are  used  it  is  not  advisable 
to  use  lighter  iron  than  No.  14,  B.  G.,  even  under  ex- 
tremely low  heads,  as  lighter  pipe  of  that  size  will  not 
bear  handling. 

The  main  supply  pipe  should  descend  in  the  most  con- 
venient and  direct  line  into  the  diggings,  avoiding,  so  far 
as  practicable,  angles,  rises,  and  depressions.  Air- valves 
should  be  arranged  at  proper  distances  to  allow  the  es- 
cape of  air  when  filling  the  pipe,  and  also  to  prevent  any 
collapse.  Where  the  pipe  passes  over  steep  banks  into 
the  claim  it  is  carried  on  a  trestle  and  braced,  care  being 
taken  to  prevent  anv  movement  of  the  column.  When 
necessary  the  pipe  is  secured  with  frame-work  and 
weighted  with  stones.  At  all  angles  the  pipe  is  braced 
and  weighted. 

In  filling  the  supplv  pipe  the  water  should  be  turned 
on  gfaduallv,  all  sudden  straining  of  the  column  being 
thus  avoided.  Leakage  in  the  slip  joints  can  be  readily 
stopped  with  a  few  bags  of  sawdust  or  b}-  wedging  them 
with  thin  pieces  of  soft  pine.  Large  leaks-  have  to  be 
closed  by  iron  grip-bands  drawn  together  b}-  means  of 
screws  or  wedges. 

The  lower  end  of  the  supply  pipe  was  formerly  fitted 
into  a  distributing  box  of  cast  iron,  from  which  one  or 
more  branch  pipes  were  taken  by  means  of  gates.  These 
are  now  abandoned  owing  to  their  great  cost  and  liability 
to  burst. 

The  present  practice  is  to  fork  the  main  pipe  wherever 


PIPES  AND    NOZZLES. 


179 


an  attachment  is  required,  cast-iron  gates  being  placed  on 
each  branch.  The  annexed  sketch  (Fig.  32)  shows  the 
form  of  these  gates  used  in  the  mines,  and  also  as  a  dis- 
charge gate  for  reservoirs. 

Where  several  branch   pipes  are  supplied    from    the 
same  main   pipe   the}-    are    usually   of   smaller  diameter. 


Fig.  32.  Distributing  Gate. 


Their  use  arises  from  the  greater  convenience  of  moving 
the  smaller  pipes.  They  are  generally  11  and  15  inches 
in  diameter.  It  is  recommended,  however,  in  order  to 
prevent  a  loss  of  head,  to  continue  the  branch  pipes  of 
the  same  size  as  the  feed  pipe,  and  to  regulate  the  dis- 
charge by  the  size  of  the  nozzles.  At  the  Southern  Cross 
and  Polar  Star  Mines  the  supply  pipes  at  the  pressure 
box  are  40  inches  and  48  inches  (respectively)  in  diameter, 
tapering  for  500  feet  to  22  inches,  which  size  they  retain  for 
2,800  feel,  then  branching  into  two  pipes  each  of  15  inches. 
At  the  Malakoff  the  pipe  at  the  head  is  27  inches,  narrow- 


l80  PIPES   AND   NOZZLES. 

ing  to  22  inches  and  1 5  inches  for  the  branches.  At  this 
mine  nozzles  of  6  inches  to  9  inches  diameter  are  used 
under  a  head  of  450  feet.  At  the  American  Mine  the  pipes 
are  34,  22,  and  1 5  inches.  At  the  Bonanza  Mine  all  the 
pipes  are  16  inches.  At  the  Milton  Company's  Manzanita 
Mine  the  pipe  is  22  inches  from  the  pressure  box  to  the 
nozzles.  1  his  pipe  is  4,000  feet  long,  with  a  head  of  430 
feet. 

THE   DISCHARC^E   PIPE   OR   NOZZLE. 

Goose  Neck, —  Fhe  hrst  improvement  in  discharge 
pipes  was  a  flexible  iron  joint  formed  by  two  elbows,  one 
working  over  the  other,  with  a  coupling  joint  between 
them.     These  elbows  were  called  Goose  Necks. 


Fig.  33. 

Their  construction  was  very  defective.  The  pressure 
of  the  water  caused  the  joint  to  move  hard,  and  when  the 
pipe  was  turned  horizontallv  it  was  apt  to  "  buck."  or  fly 
around  in  a  contrary  direction.  The  same  thing  occurred 
in  elevating  and  depressing  the  pipe. 

Globe  3Ioiiitor. — The  Goose  Neck  was  succeeded  by 
the  Craig  Globe  Monitor,  a  simple  ball-and-socket  joint, 
which  was  difficult  to  work,  often  requiring  several  men 
to  manipulate  it. 

A  subsequent  invention  of  Mr.  Craig  was  the  interior 
tripod  and  belt.  "  This  was  a  tripod  with  a  centre  hav- 
ing a  hole  to  take  a  bolt  with  a  knob  on  the  end  ;  the 
other  end  passed  out  through  the  top  of  the  elbow  and 
had  a  nut  with  a  lever.     Bv  tisrhtenine  the  nut  it  threw 


PIPES   AND   NOZZLES.  x8l 

the  strain  on  the  bolt  and  reduced  the  friction  on  the 
joint  proper."  These  machines  were  hard  to  manage  and 
soon  became  leaky  at  the  joint. 


Fu;.  34.  Ckaic's  Gloke  Monitor. 


Hydraulic  Chief. —The  invention  of  Mr.  Craig-  was 
succeeded  bv  the  "  Hydraidic  Chief,"  sometimes  known 
as  the  "  Knuckle-joint  and  Nozzle,"  invented  bv  Mr.  F.  H. 
Fisher.     The  main  features  consist  of  two  elbows  placed 


Fig.  35.  Thk  IIvdrai  iic  Chikk 


in  reversed  position  when  m  ris^ht  line,  connected  by  a 
ring  in  which  there  are  anti-triction  rolls.  The  ring  is 
bolted  to  a  flange  on  the  elbow,  but  gives  the  upper 
elbow  a  free  horizontal  movemcnl,  while  the  vertical  mo- 
tion \s  obtained  through  the  knuckle-joint,  which  is  placed 


1 82  nrES   AND   NOZZLES. 

in  the  outlet  on  the  top  elbow.  This  joint  is  simply  a 
concave  surface  fitted  to  a  convex  one,  the  former  having 
an  opening  for  the  pipe  to  pass  through. 

The  interior  of  the  machine  is  unobstructed  by  any 
bolts  or  fastenings,  and  the  man  at  the  pipe  can  operate  it 
bv  means  of  the  lever  without  personal  danger.  Vanes, 
or  rifles,  are  inserted  in  the  discharge  pipe  to  prevent  the 
rotary  movement  of  the  water  caused  by  the  elbows,  and 
to  force  it  to  issue  in  a  straight  line,  concentrated  and  in 
a  solid  form.  These  machines  soon  become  leaky  and  are 
expensive  to  keep  in  order. 

Dictator. — In  1870  the  Hoskins  Dictator  was  patent- 
ed. This  was  a  one-jointed  machine,  having  an  elastic 
packing  in  the  joint  instead  of  two  metallic  faces.  The 
joint  worked  up  and  down  on  the  pivots,  and  in  rotating 
it  the  wheels  ran  around  up  against  the  flange.  This  ma- 
chine, though  simple,  is  but  little  used. 

Little  Giant. — Mr.   Hoskins  subsequently  invented 


Fig.  36.  The  Little  Giant. 


the  "  Little  Giant,"  a  two-jointed  machine,  which,  on  ac- 
count of  its  simplicity  and  durability,  rapidly  superseded 
all  others.  It  is  portable  and  easily  handled,  having  a 
knuckle-joint  and  lateral  movement.  The  Giants  have 
rifles,  and  nozzles  from  4  to  9  inches  in  diameter,  5>^  to 
7-inch  nozzles  being  most  generally  used. 


pipp:s  and  nozzles. 


183 


In  setting  Giants  they  must  be  firmh'  bolted  to  a  heavy 
piece , of  timber,  and  this  timber  securely  braced  against 
the  solid  gravel  or  rock.  The  machine  and  adjacent 
length  of  pipe  must  also  be  weighted  to  the  ground. 
The  bearings  should  be  lubricated.  Tallow  or  axle-grease 
is  preferable  to  oil  for  this  purpose. 

Hydraulic  Giant. — The  Hydraulic  Giant  is  a  modi- 
fication of  the  Little  Giant.  The  several  sizes,  as  con- 
structed by  Joshua  Hendy,  are  as  follows  : 


No. 
I. 
2. 

3- 
4- 

5. 
6. 


Inlet, 
inches. 
•  •  7 
..  9 
.  .11 
.  .11 
..15 
..15 


Outlet, 
inches. 

Si 
7 

7i 
9i 
9h 
II 


Inside  Diam. 
Nozzle  Butt. 

4  in. 

5  " 
5  or  6  " 

7  " 

8  " 

9" 


Weight, 
lbs. 

245 
450 

665 

750 

875 

1,050 


Fig.  3S.  The  Hydraulic  Giant. 


Monitor. — Fig.  39  represents  a  Monitor  Hydraulic 
Machine  with  a  "  deflecting  nozzle,"  the  invention  of  Mr. 
Henry  C.  Perkins.  '      ,  . 

Deflector. — By  means  of  the  "  deflecting  nozzle  "  the 
Giant  can  be  turned  to  any  point  and  the  stream  directed 
with  the  greatest  facility. 

A,  Cast-iron  nozzle. 

B,  Deflecting  nozzle  <^f  wn^ught  iron,  attached  to  A 
b}'  a  joint  similar  to  a  compass  gimbal. 


1 84 


PIPES   AND    NOZZLES. 


C,  Lever  to  govern  the  movement  of  B. 

D,  Rest  for  lever  B. 

The  operation  is  as  follows  :  When  the  lever,  C  is  in  the 
rest,  D,  the  deflecting-  nozzle,  /?,  being-  of  a  larger  diameter 
than  nozzle,  A,  allows  the  stream  of  water  from  nozzle,  A, 
to  pass  through  without  obstruction.  To  move  the  pipe 
the  lever  is  taken  from  the  rest  and  thrust  in  the  direction 
in  which  it  is  desired  to  throw  the  stream.  Anv  move- 
ment of  the  lever,  C,  either  to  the  right  or  left,  or  up  or 


Fig.  39.  Monitor  Hydraulic  Machine. 


down,  throws  the  end  of  the  nozzle,  B,  into  the  stream  of 
water.  The  force  of  the  water  striking  B  changes  the 
course  of  the  discharge,  the  entire  machine  moving  in  ac- 
cordance with  each  change  of  the  deflector. 

Hoskins'  deflecting  nozzle  is  of  cast  iron,  of  the  same 
size  as  the  main  nozzle,  to  which  it  is  attached  by  a 
packed  universal  joint.  This  deflector  is  operated  by  a 
lever  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  already  described.  It 
has  the  disadvantage  of  causing  a  constant  interference 
with  the  stream  of  water,  and  is  somewhat  dangerous  to 
use. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

VARIOUS  MECHANICAL  APPLIANCES. 

Derricks. — Strong  derricks  are  used  in  hydraulic 
mines  to  facilitate  the  removal  of  large  boulders  and  rocks, 
which  are  of  frequent  occurrence.  The  present  style  of 
bed-rock  derrick  has  a  mast  loo  feet  high,  and  a  boom  92 
feet  long,  which  is  set  in  a  cast-iron  box  placed  on  sills. 
The  mast  is  held  in  position  by  six  guys  of  galvanized  iron 
wire  rope  one  inch  in  diameter.  A  whip  block,  with 
three-quarter  inch  diameter  steel  rope,  is  used  for  the 
hoisting  tackle.  A  twelve-feet  diameter  Hurd>'-gurdy 
wheel  is  attached,  and,  using  30  inches  of  water  under  275 
feet  head,  it  lifts  stones  weighing  eleven  tons.  The  guys 
are  held  by  double  capstans. 

This  derrick  can  be  readily  uKn^ed  100  feet  in  ten 
hours  without  being  taken  down. 

Hurdy-j^iirdy  Wheels. — Derricks  and  electric-light 
machines  necessitate  the  employment  of  a  motor,  par- 
ticularly one  driyen  by  water,  and  capable  of  utilizing 
high  heads.  Hence  the  use  of  water-wheels  of  the  class 
known  as  "Impact"  Wheels,"  locally  called  "  Ilurdy- 
gurdys." 

These  are  wheels  moved  by  a  stream  or  jet  of  water 
issuing  under  pressure  from  a  conical  nozzle  and  striking 
open  buckets  on  the  circumference  of  the  wheel.  The 
buckets,  originally  flat,  have  been  modified  in  shape,  and 
thereby  the  efficiency  of  the  wheel  greatly  increased. 

Experiments   at  North    Blooinfield.  — The   first 

*  See  comment  on  the  use  of  this  term,  p.  194. 
.8s 


1 86 


VARIOUS    MECHANICAL   APPLIANCES. 


© 


1— t- 


■v^ 


© 


r 


Ji 


GROUND  PLAN 


© 


J^ 


\t/ 


/^ 


Vt/ 


© 


Fig.  40.  IIuRDY-GuRDY  Wheel  and  Derrick-Hoist. 


VARIOUS   MECHANICAL  APPLIANCES. 


187 


1 88  VARIOUS    MECHAMCAL   APPLIANCES. 

noteworthy  experiments  recorded  were  made  about  ten 
years  ago  by  Hamilton  Smith,  Jr.,  at  North  Bloom- 
field.  The  wheel  was  of  the  ordinary  pattern  with  flat 
buckets,  1 8  feet  in  diameter  on  the  outside  and  17  feet 
4  inches   in  diameter  to  inner   line  of   buckets  (17  feet 


Scale 


I— i-^^4-^a-^ 


Fig.  42.  HuRDY-GuRDY  Wheel. 


8  inches  in  diameter  at  centre  line  of  buckets).  The 
buckets  were  4  inches  deep,  with  flanges  on  each  side. 
The  work  done  was  measured  by  a  Prony  dynamometer. 
The  following  table  shows  the  result  obtained.  The 
head  given  shows  the  real  head  in  feet  at  the  point  of  the 
discharge. 


VARIOUS    MECHANICAL   ATTLIAXCES.  IS9 

TABLE  XXIII. 


Description  of  nozzle. 


Nozzle  tapered. 

Ring 

Nozzle  tapered. 

Ring 


Nozzle 

Nozzle  tapered,  uncut. 


Nozzle. 


Nozzle  cut  off. 


•0531 
.0597 
.0850 

.0847 

.0850 


322.3 

•323 

316.3 

.240 

312. 1 

-759 

j  312.6 

.511 

1  312-2 

-509 

314.4 

-774 

3i6-i 

.813 

(317-9 

I. Ill 

I31S-6 

I. no 

(  332-6 
< 
i  .335-9 

.831 
.833 

V 


Eii 


> 

< 

144.0 

145-8 

142.6 

85-7 

141. 7 

133-7 

141. 8 

90.7 

141. 7 

90.3 

142.2 

136.4 

142.6 

•37-4 

143.0     136.8 

142.5    136.7 


146.2 

147.0 


140.4 

140.8 


-21 

O  Q. 


•=-?.     -2  "  ^ 


■—•^  > 


r— '— 

0 

0 

S 

B 

W 

B 

UJ 

0 

3* 

s 

^ 

■C 

0 

JX 

0 

05 

^ 

5" 

s. 

!=•  TO 

■B 

fO 

\ 

1 

190  VARIOUS    MFXHANICAL   APPLIANCES. 

Experiments  at  the  Empire  Mill. — An  experi- 
ment at  the  Empire  Mill,  French  Corral,  was  made 
under  the  following  circumstances,  giving  the  annexed 
results:  Ten  stamps,  weight  of  each  69334^  pounds. 
Drop,  0.768  feet.  Speed  of  stamps,  62.2  drops  per  min- 
ute. Work  done  by  91.68  cubic  feet  of  water  per  min- 
ute head,  130.  i  feet.  Size  of  wheel,  13^/^  feet  outer 
diameter.  Diameter  of  wheel,  12.58  feet  to  centres  of 
buckets.  Size  of  buckets,  4  inches  wide  and  6  inches 
deep,  set  10  inches  apart.  Water  conducted  to  wheel 
through  an  ii-inch  pipe  866  feet  long.  The  wheel  was 
direct  on  the  cam  shaft ;  single  cams  used.  The  mill 
crushed  60  tons  of  gravel  in  24  hours  ;  one-quarter-inch 
screens  were  used. 

Description  of  nozzle Ring. 

Diameter  of  nozzle  in  feet .182 

Head,  in  feet,  at  nozzle 130.1 

Discharge  of  water  per  second  in  cubic  feet 1.528 

Velocity  of  water  due  to  gravity 91.4 

Actual  velocity  of  water  at  small  diameter  of  nozzle 58.5 

Speed  of  wheel  at  centre  of  buckets  when  running  light 

Highest  horse-power  developed lo.o 

Ratio  of  work  done  to  theoretical  power  of  water .445 

Speed  of  wheel    at  centre  of  buckets  when  giving  most 

work 41.0 

Number  of  nozzle  (see  sketch) 8. 

The  head  at  French  Corral  was  the  height  of  the 
water  in  pen-stock  above  the  nozzle,  no  allowance  being 
made  (as  in  the  North  Bloomfield  experiments)  for  the 
loss  of  head  bv  friction  in  pipes  and  by  leakage.* 

Curved  Buckets. — Recent  patterns  of  wheels  with 
curved  buckets  have  given  an  efficiency  very  much  in  ex- 
cess of  that  described  above. 

Tests  at  the  Idaho  Mine. — A  series  of  comparative 
tests  was  made  in  the  spring  of  1883  at  the  Idaho  Mine, 

*  All  the  data  given  on  pages  1S9  and  190  concerning  Hurdy-gurdy  wheels  were  com- 
municated by  the  author  to  the  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers  in  a  paper  read  at 
the  Wilkesbarre  meeting,  May,  1877.  See  vol.  vi.  "  Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Mining  En- 
gineers." 


VARIOUS    MECHANICAL   APPLIANCES.  I91 

Grass  Valley,  with  the  Fredenburr,  Pelton,  Knight,  and 
Taylor  wheels,  the  results  of  which  are  given  below.  The 
tests  were  made  in  public,  all  owners  of  wheels  having  a 
right  to  compete.  Prony's  Friction  Dynamometer  was 
used,  the  brake  acting  on  wheels  6  feet  in  diameter. 
The  point  of  contact  with  the  scale  beam  (57.3  inches) 
described  a  circumference  of  30  feet.  The  supply  main 
was  6,900  feet  long,  22  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  head  of 
386^  feet  at  nozzle.  A  pressure  gauge  placed  a  short 
distance  back  from  the  discharge  nozzle  (1.89  inches  (?)  in 
diameter)  is  said  to  have  registered  standing  165  jK)unds, 
and  running  162  pounds.  The  water  from  the  wheel  was 
discharged  into  a  flume  36  feet  long,  36.5  inches  wide,  and 
24  inches  deep.  There  were  three  check-boards  placed  in 
the  flume  below  where  the  water  entered.  The  hook 
gauge,  arranged  on  one  side  of  the  flume,  was  set  24 
inches  back  from  the  weir.  The  water  passed  freely 
around  the  hook  and  was  very  quiet  in  the  flume.  A 
weir,  12  inches  deep  and  36^  inches  wide,  made  of  }i- 
inch  iron,  over  which  the  water  flowed  without  contrac- 
tions, was  placed  at  the  end  of  the  flume.  Francis'  for- 
mula for  the  discharge  of  water  over  weirs  was  adopted 
as  the  basis  of  the  calculations. 

The  following  are  the  official  returns  : 

FREDENBURR   WHEEL. 


Weight  on 

Revolu- 

brakes, lbs. 

tions. 

444  J^ 

196 

358K 

260 

361K 

246 

338^ 

276 

298 

281 

358 

259 

Horse- 

Head of 
water 

Cubic  ft. 
of  water 

power. 

over  weir, 
inches. 

per  min- 
ute. 

79.2 

4.975 

163. 211 

84.2 

" 

80.  s 

<< 

84.4 

<( 

76.1 

<i 

84.3 

<i 

Other  tests  were  made  of  this  wheel,  resulting  in  an  average  of  82. 925- 
1000  horse-power  [?],  utilizing  69.6-10  per  cent,  of  the  force  and  impact  of 
the  water. 


192 


VARIOUS    MKCIIAXTCAL   APPLIANCES. 


PELTOX    WllKEL — FIRST   TEST. 


Weight 

brakes,  1 

on 

lbs. 

Revolu- 
tions. 

Horse- 
power. 

Head  of 

water 

over  weir, 

inches. 

Cubic  ft. 
of  water 
per  min- 
ute. 

465 

254Ji 

107. 58 

4-975 

163.211 

465 

255 

107.79 

*  * 

" 

460 

256 

107.05 

" 

" 

•460 

2561^ 

107.26 
SECOND    'lEST, 

<( 

465 

256,^ 

108.43 

4-950 

162.98 

470 

249 

108.39 

" 

•  ( 

460 

257^^ 

107.68 

" 

" 

465 

254 

107.37 

" 

<< 

LOWER    NOZZLE. 


460 

257 

107.47 

465 

254^ 

107  58 

STILL   LOWER. 

465 

253 

106.95 
HIGH    NOZZLE. 

465 

256 

108.21 

465 

249 

105.26 

4.950 


4.950 


4.950 


Average  horse-power,  107.49-100,  or  go.2-10  per  cent. 


KNIGHT   WHEEL — FIRST   TEST. 


162.98 
<< 

162.98 
162.98 


Weight 
brakes. 

on 
lbs. 

Revolu- 
tions. 

Horse- 
power. 

Head  of 

water 

over  weir, 

inches. 

Cubic  ft. 
of  water 
per  min- 
ute. 

430 

217 

84.8 

152.60 

400 

233 

84.36 

<< 

400 

236 

85.8 

" 

The  cubic  inches  of  water  in  this  tpst  were  reckoned  on  the  amount  of 
miner's  inches  used,  allowing  1.40  cubic  feet  per  minute  for  I  miner's  inch 
— this  shows  77. 18  per  cent,  of  the  power  of  the  water. 


460 

475 


241 
204 


SECOND   TEST. 
100.78 

88. 09 


5-325 
5.100 


180.72 
160.35 


Average  percent,  of  first  test,  76.5-10.  Average  per  cent,  of  second  test, 
71. 2-10.  These  were  the  only  tests  made  of  this  wheel,  the  nozzle  breaking 
and  there  being  no  other  on  hand. 


VARIOUS    MECHANICAL   AIM'LIANCES. 


193 


TAYLOR    WHElil 

'  Head  of 

Cubic  ft. 

Weight  on 

Revolu- 

Horse- 

water 

of  water 

brakes,  lbs. 

tions. 

power. 

over  weir, 
inches. 

per  min- 
ute. 

400  IS4                   66.91 

3123^  254               72.16 

Average  per  cent,   of  first  test,  55.1-10. 
test,  60.5-10. 


4.975  163.21 1 

Average  per  cent,  of  second 


The  accuracy  of  the  weir  measurements  may  be  con- 
sidered doubtful.  From  the  data  obtained  it  did  not  ap- 
pear that  the  increased  discharge  due  to  velocity  of  ap- 
proach had  been  taken  into  account.     To  check  this  es- 


FiG.  44.  The  Pei.ton  Wheel. 

timate  of  flow  the  diameter  of  the  nozzle  above  given 
could  not  be  used,  as  it  was  not  accuratel}-  measured  and 
the  coefihcient  of  efflux  had  not  been  established.  How- 
ever, sufficient  is  known  to  justify  the  assumption  that 
the  efficiency  of  the  Pelton  wheel  is  at  least  86  per  cent. 

Tests  at  the  University  of  California.— The  latest 
and  most  accurate  data  are  derived  from  a  monograph  bv 
Ross  E.  Browne,  of  the  Universitv  of  California  ;  these, 
with  the  permission  of  the  author,  are  here  given  entire. 

Hurdy-gurdy   wheels    arc    commonlv  called  "  Impact 


194  VARIOUS    MECHANICAL   APPLIANCES. 

wheels,"  though  such  a  name  is  misleading,  and  entirely 
loses  its  signiticance  when  the  bucket  is  given  its  best 
form.  When  a  jet  of  water  strikes  a  stationary  bucket 
shaped  as  shown  in  Fig.  45  or  in  Fig.  46,  as  soon  as  the 
motion  has  become  permanent  the  wedge-shaped  portion 
of  the  water  shaded  with  horizontal  lines  be- 
comes practically  station- 
ary. We  have  actual  im- 
pact only  for  a  minute  in- 
terval  of   time — i.e.,    while 

the  wedge  is  forming.     Af-  '       ' 

Fig.  45.  o  .   °.        .  Fig.  46. 

ter  this  the  water  is  simply 

deflected  from  its  course,  and  the  bucket  becomes  almost 

instantaneously  a  pressure  bucket. 

When  such  a  bucket  is  used  for  a  wheel  it  is  plain  that 
this  shaded  portion  of  the  water  is  "  carried  "  and  must 
subsequently  escape  with  nearly  the  full  velocity  of  the 
bucket.  Its  useful  effect  is  therefore  very  small  as  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  water  actually  deflected.  No  ad- 
vantage comes,  then,  from  impact ;  on  the  contrary,  serious 
losses  are  due  to  it. 

The  originally  flat  bucket  (see  Fig.  45)  has  been  ma- 
terially improved  : 

ist.  By  giving  it  curvature  (see  Fig.  46). 

2d.  By  filling  in  the  wedge  and  making  it  a  part  of 
the  bucket.  This  second  improvement  brings  us  to  the 
"  Pelton  wheel"  (see  Fig.  53),  which  is  by  no  means  an 
"  impact  "  but  distinctly  a  "  pressure  "  wheel.  By  filling 
in  the  wedge  impact  is  avoided.  The  same  thing  in  prin- 
ciple could  be  accomplished  with  the  simply  curved 
bucket  by  having  the  jet  strike  one  side  instead  of  the 
centre  (see  Fig.  47). 

A  prominent  distinction  between  the  Hurdy-gurdy 
wheel  and  the  Partial  Turbine  rests  in  the  fact  that  the 
former  has  "  open "  and  the  latter  "  closed  "  buckets. 
When  properly  constructed  the  one  is  no  more  an  "  im- 
pact wheel  "  than  the  other. 


VARIOUS   MECHANICAL  APPLIANCES.  1 95 

The  principal  sources  of  loss  in  Hurdy-gurdy  wheels 
are  in  general : 

I  St.  The  energy  remaining  in  the  water  after  being 
discharged  from  the  bucket. 

2d.  The  heat  developed  by  impact  of 
the  water  in  striking  the  bucket. 

3d.  The  fluid  friction  of  the  water  in 
passing  over  the  surface  of  the  bucket. 

4th.  The  loss  of  head  in  the  nozzle. 
The  loss  in  the  supply  pipe  is  not  charged 
to  the  wheel. 

5th.  The  journal  friction. 
6th.  The  resistance  of  the  air. 

In  the  formulas  below  all  of  these  sources  of  loss  but 
the  first  are  neglected  ;  and  for  the  purpose  of  weighing 
the  importance  of  curvature  in  the  buckets,  it  is  assumed 
that  all  of  the  water  escapes  from  the  bucket  with  the 
same  velocity — i.e.,  no  water  is  "  carried  "  with  the  wheel. 
Let  c  designate  the  velocity  of  the  bucket  in   feet  per 

second. 
V        "  "     velocity  of  the  jet  escaping  from  the 

nozzle. 
u         "  "     relative  velocity  of  discharge  from 

the  bucket. 
w        "  "     absolute  velocity  of  discharge  from 

the  bucket. 
Q         "  "     quantity  of   water  supplied   per  sec- 

ond in  cubic  feet. 
y        "  "     weight  of  one  cubic  foot  of  water. 

L        "  "     useful  work  (in  foot  lbs.  per  second) 

under  the  above  conditions. 
jy         "  "     efficiency   of   the    wheel   under  the 

above  conditions. 
g"        "  "     acceleration  of  gravity. 

d        "  "     angle  made  bv  the  discharge  end  of 

the  bucket  with  its  line  of  motion 
(see  Fig.  48). 


196 


VARIOUS   MECHANICAL  APPLIANCES. 


Then  7^ 


K/'=  »"-{-  C"—  2tlC  COS  O  =  v'—  {2VC  —  2c'')  (l  -\-  COS  d) 

L  =  ^  {V-  w-')  =  '^  (2VC  -  2c')  (I  +COS  a) 


And  by  varying  the  velocity  of  the 
bucket  we  have  for  the  greatest  effi- 
ciency— 


^  =  2(,+COSa)(i-|)=0 


V 


Fig.  48. 


(I) 


i.e.,  the  velocity  of  the  bucket  should  be  one-half  the 
velocity  of  the  supply  water  (the  jet)  escaping  from  the 
nozzle,  and  this  is  not  very  materially  modified  by  intro- 
ducing the  other  conditions.  Hence  the  greatest  ef- 
ficiency— 


^.=  -  (i+cosd") 


(2) 


The  smaller  we  make  o  the  greater  w^ill  be  this  efficiency. 

Flat  Buckets.— If  the  bucket  is 
flat,  0  =  90  degrees,  hence  rj^  =  50  per 
cent.  ;  i.e.,  50  per  cent,  could  not  be 
reached  with  flat  buckets,  on  account 
of  the  sources  of  loss 
these  formulas. 

A  series  of  experiments  were  made 
with  such  flat  buckets  (see  Fig.  50) 
with  a  ^-inch  nozzle. 

The  curve  of  efficiency  for  various  ^^^'  '*9- 

speeds,  as  established  from   these  experiments,  is  shown 


neglected    in 


VARIOUS   MECHANICAL   APPLIANCES. 


197 


in  Fig.  56.     A  ^-inch  nozzle  gave  results  but  slightly  dif- 
fering from  these. 


(scale  y\) 

Fig.  50. 

The  highest  result  was  40.4  per  cent,  under  50.2  feet 
head. 

The  velocity  of  the  jet  being  approximately  i'  =  .98 
V64.36  X  50.2  =  55.7  feet  per  second,  we  should  have  for 
best  efificiency,  if  the  conditions  were  such  as  led  us  to 
equation  (i),  the  velocity  ot  point  P  oi   the  bucket  c  = 

-=  27.85.      This  corresponds   to   6.8    revolutions   of  the 

wheel  per  second,  which  is  marked  by  a  heavy  vertical 
line  crossing  the  curve  very  near  the  point  of  the  best 
efficiency  actually  obtained. 


(scale  yi)       I 


Fig.  51. 


Fig.  52. 


Curved  Buckets. — If  d  could  be  made  =0,  we  should 
have,  under  our  assumed  conditions,  ;y,  =  100  per  cent.  ; 
w  would  be  =  o,  and  the  water  would  simply  fall  from 
the  bucket  by  its  own  weight.     Evidentlv.  then,  o  should 


iqS 


VARIOUS    xMECHANICAL   APPLIANCES. 


be  made  as  small  as  is  compatible  with  clearance  of  the 
supply  jet  and  the  following  bucket.  Experiments  were 
made  with  such  a  bucket  as  shown  in  Fig.  5 1  in  section,  in 
other  respects  shaped  and  set  upon  the  rim  of  the  wheel 
as  the  Pelton  bucket  (see  Fig.  53). 


(sCALtM.) 


Fig.  53.     Pelton  Wheel. 


A  ^-inch  nozzle  was  used  under  head  of  50.4  feet. 
The  best  result  reached  was  65.6  per  cent.  The  curve  of 
efficiency  is  shown  in  Fig.  56.  The  heavy  line  crossing 
the   curve    again   shows   the    best    speed    as    calculated 

by    making  c  =1 -.     This   marks   a   speed    about   one-half 

revolution  per  second  greater  than  that  actually  found  by 
experiment. 

The  Pelton  Wheel.— Mr.  Pelton  kindly  furnished 
a  pattern  from  which  buckets  were  cast,  and  thirty  of 
them  attached   to  the   wheel   as   shown   in   Fig.    53.      A 


VARIOUS    MECHANICAL   APPLIANCES. 


199 


section  and  an  isometric  projection  of  the  bucket  are 
shown  in  Fig.  52.  The  angle  d  is  just  sufficient  to  provide 
against  interference  of  the  discharged  water  with  the 
buckets  following. 

The  face  of  the  bucket  is  inclined  to  the  diameter  of 
the  wheel. 


'—         Ks        ij         •«»•        v        o> 

0         ©         0         0         6         0 

^ 

bo         5»         c 
0         0         e 

p 

» 

v« 

>»■ 

\s- 

^' 

yi 

v» 

,-\ 

\ 

' 

w 

\ 

01 

OB 

\ 

"> 

\ 

\ 

) 

^ 

^ 

p 

^^^ 

^ 

^ 

0 

-^H 

^^. 

^ 

ts 

^ 

& 

S 

^ 

X 


1  X 

n    ■ 

Jl^  p 


Experiments  were  first  made  with  seven  differen  set- 
tings of  the  nozzle.  For  direction  d^  (Fig.  53)  of  jet  the 
efficiency  was  68.1  per  cent.,  for  ^/  80.5  per  cent.,  for  d^ 
78.4  per  cent.  The  nozzle  was  permanently  set  to  give 
direction  d  to  the  jet. 


200 


VARIOUS   MECHANICAL  APPLIANCES. 


PELTON  WHEEL  ,  VAUvmc  tmi  mcao 


The  efficiency  was  then  determined  for  various  veloci- 
ties of  the  wheel: 

ist.  With  a  ^-inch  nozzle  giving  82.5  per  cent,  as  best 
result  (see  Figs.  54  and  56). 

2d.  With  a  14^ -inch  nozzle  giving  75.6  per  cent,  as  best 
result  (see  Fig.  54). 

3d.  With  a  ^Vi"ch  nozzle  giving  82.6  per  cent,  as  best 
result.  * 

Doubtless  the  nozzle  might  have  been  increased  to  ^ 

inch  without  materially  re- 
ducing the  efficiency. 

Another  set  of  experi- 
ments was  made  with  the 
^^-inch  nozzle  under  various 
heacfs,  from  50  feet  down  to 
8  feet,  showing  a  gradual 
decrease  in  useful  effect  (see 

Fig.  55)- 

At  8  feet  the  efficiency 
still  remained  as  high  as  73 
percent.  In  experimenting 
with  the  "  curved  buckets  " 
the  efficiency  might  possi- 
bly have  been  raised  2  or  3 

per  cent,  by  attending  more 

^     ^^  carefully  to  the  curve  and  to 

the  size  of  nozzle  used.    Still 

there   was  probably  a  gain 

of  more  than  12  per  cent,  due  to  the  introduction  of  the 

wedge  in  the  Pelton  bucket. 

In  comparing  the  three  Hurdy-gurdy  wheels  experi- 
mented with,  it  is  evident  from  Figs.  52,  46,  and  45  that 
the  "Pelton  bucket"  will  "carry"  the  least,  and  the 
^'  curved  bucket  "  the  greatest,  quantity  of  water.     This 


fiO 


.70 


.60 


.60 


.40 


JO 


__ 

.^ 

^ 

H-  1 

)      2 

0     3 

0      4< 

3        5 

0       6( 

HEAD  or  WATER   im  FEJTT. 

Fir,.   55. 


*  In  view  of  the  fact  that  Mr.  Pelton  claims  a  still  higher  efficiency  for  his  wheel,  it 
should  be  stated  that  although  he  furnished  the  pattern  for  the  bucket,  the  wheel  does  not 
precisely  conform  in  all  particulars  to  his  standard. 


VARIOUS    MECHANICAL   APPLIANCES. 


20 1 


'"  carried "  water  is  the  most  important  of  the  sources 
of  loss  not  taken  into  account  in  equations  (i)  and  (2j. 
Hence  the  approximate  best  speed  as  calculated  from 
equation  (i)  differs  least  from  the  actual  best  speed  as 
found  by  experiment,  in  the  case  of  the  "  Pelton  bucket," 
and  most  in  the  case  of  the  "  curved  bucket  "  (see  Fig. 


EFFICIENCY 


56).     It  is  perfectly  safe  to  say  the   Pelton  bucket  should 
have  one-half  the  speed  of  the  supply  jet  for  best  effect. 
It  is  plain  that  the   Pelton  wheel  has  certain  advan- 

*  The  Partial  Turbine  here  mentioned  is  a  Tangential  Wheel   with   inner   feed,  and   was 
specially  designed  fcr  a  small  supply  jet. 


202  VARIOUS    MECHANICAL   APPLIANCES. 

tages  over  the  Tang'ential  wheel.  It  is  more  easily  built, 
has  a  decided  advantage  in  the  setting  of  the  nozzle,  and 
is  not  so  dependent  on  the  precise  size  of  nozzle  used. 
The  capacity  of  these  wheels  may  be  doubled  by  adding 
another  nozzle. 

It  is  quite  likely  that  a  wheel  considerably  larger  than 
the  one  used  at  the  University  could  be  made  to  give  a  still 
higher  efficiency  than  the  S2}^  per  cent,  found.  The 
angles  in  the  pattern  for  bucket  castings  could  be  made 
more  accurate. 

THE   PAN. 

The  pan,  an  mdispensable  companion  of  the  gold- 
miner,  is  pressed  from  a  single  piece  of  Russia  sheet  iron. 
It  is  12  inches  in  diameter  at  the  bottom  and  15  to  16 
inches  on  the  top,  the  sides  inclining  outward  at  an  angle 
of  about  30  degrees,  and  turned  over  a  wire  around  the 
edge  to  strengthen  it.  It  is  used  in  prospecting,  cleaning 
gold-bearing  sand,  collecting  amalgam  in  the  sluices,  and, 
in  fact,  in  every  branch  of  the  business. 

Its  proper  manipulation  for  washing  dirt  requires  a 
certain  skill,  which  can  be  acquired  only  by  practice.  The 
pan,  filled  with  dirt,  is  submerged  in  a  tub  or  pool  of  water 
and  the  gravel  worked  with  the  hands  until  all  cemented 
material  is  disintegrated.  The  coarse  stones  are  cleaned 
and  thrown  out.  In  washing  the  residue  the  pan  is  held 
in  a  tilted  position.  By  a  circular  motion  and  by  careful 
use  of  the  water,  into  w^hich  the  pan  is  continually  dipped, 
all  the  lighter  dirt  is  worked  to  the  top  arid  over  the  edge 
(pebbles  being  picked  out  by  hand)  until  only  the  fine 
gold  and  black  iron  sand  remain. 

THE   BATEA. 

The  batea  is  a  shallow  wooden  bowl  commonly  used 
in  Brazil  and  the  Spanish-American  States  for  separating, 
on  a  limited  scale,  grains  of  gold  from  sand,  pyritic  mat- 
ter, and  magnetic  iron.     "A  disc  of   17  inches  diameter,. 


VARIOUS   MECHANICAL  APPLIANCES. 


203 


being  turned  conical  12  degrees,  will  have  a  depth  of  ij4 
inches  from  centre  to  surface.  The  thickness  may  be 
^  of  an  inch.  The  outer  edge,  perpendicular  to  axis, 
will  require  wood  2}4  inches  thick  for  its  construction. 
The  best  wood  is  Honduras  mahogany."  * 

THE   ROCKER. 

The  rocker  is  a  box  40  inches  long,  16  inches  wide  on 
the  bottom,  i  foot  high,  with  sides  sloped  like  a  cradle, 
and  with  rockers  at  the  middle  and  back  end. 

The  upper  end  is  a  hopper,  20  inches  square,  4  inches 
deep,  with  a  perforated  iron  bottom  with  half-inch-diame- 
ter holes.  This  top  hopper  is  removable.  Under  the  per- 
forated plate  there  is  a  light  frame,  placed  on  an  incline, 
upon  which  a  canvas  apron  is  stretched,  forming  a  riffle. 

In  washing  with  the  rocker  the  material  is  thrown  into 
the  hopper  and  water  is  poured  on  with  a  dipper  held  in 


Fir,.  57.   The  Rocker. 

one  hand,  while  with  the  other  hand  the  cradle  is  kept 
rocking.  The  water  washes  the  sand  and  dirt  through  the 
bottom  of  the  hopper,  and  the  gold  or  amalgam  is  cither 
caught  in  the  apron  or  picked  up  in  the  bottom  of  the 
rocker,  while  the  sand  and  lighter  material  are  discharged 
at  the  end,  and  the  coarse  material  in  the  hopper  is 
thrown  aside.  In  California  rockers  were  extensively 
used   before  the  introduction  of  ditches,   but  now   they 


*  See  paper  by  Melville  Attwood,  "  Transactions  Cal.  State  Geological  Sec." 


204 


VARIOUS    MECHANICAL   APPLIANCES. 


are  employed  only  when  cleaning  up  placer  claims  and 
quartz  mills,  lor  the  collection  of  finely  subdivided  parti- 
cles of  amalgam  and  quicksilver. 


THE    TOM. 

The  tom,  said  to  have  been  an  importation  from 
Georgia,  was  first  used  in  Nevada  County  in  the  latter 
part  of  1849.  It  is  a  rough  trough  about  12  feet  long, 
from  15  inches  to  20  inches  wide  at  the  top,  30  inches 
wide  at  the  lower  end,  and  8  inches  deep.  It  is  supported 
on  timbers  or  stones,  and  set  on  an  incline  of,  say,  12  inches 


SECTION  OF  THE  TOM 


Fig.  5S.  The  Tom. 

(or  I  inch  per  foot).  A  sheet-iron  plate,  perforated  with 
holes  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  forms  the  bottom  of  the 
lower  end  of  the  trough,  which  is  bevelled  on  the  lower 
side,  so  as  to  have  the  plate  on  a  level. 

The  material,  when  fed  in  from  sluices,  on  striking  the 
riddle  (or  perforated  plate)  is  at  once  sorted,  the  fine  dirt 
with  the  water  passing  through  it,  while  the  coarser  stuff 
is  shovelled  off. 

Under  the  perforated  plate  there  is  a  flat  box  set  on  an 
incline,  into  which  the  finer  gravel  passes.  By  the  con- 
tinual discharge  ot  the  water  through  the  plate,  and  with 
the  occasional  aid  of  the  shovel,  the  sand  is  kept  loose, 
allowing  the  gold  to  settle.  Snice  the  introduction  of 
sluices  the  tom  has  disappeared. 


VARIOUS    MECHANICAL   APPLIANXES.  20$ 

THE    PUDDLING   BOX. 

The  puddling  box  is  a  wooden  box,  usually  6  feet 
square  and  1 8  inches  deep,  arranged  with  plugs  for  dis- 
charging the  contents.  The  box  is  tilled  with  water  and 
clayey  dirt  containing  gold.  By  continuous  stirring  with 
a  rake  the  clay  is  dissolved  in  the  water  and  run  off. 
The  concentrated  material  collected  in  the  bottom  is 
washed  subsequently  in  a  pan  or  rocker.  The  puddling 
box  has  been  used  to  a  very  limited  extent  in  California, 
but  in  Australia,  according  to  Forbes,  no  less  than  3,950 
of  them,  worked  by  horse-power,  were  in  use  in  Victoria 
alone  in  i860.* 

AMALGAM    KETTLES. 

The  amalgam  and  quicksilver  kettles  are  ordinary 
sheet-iron  buckets  or  porcelain-lined  iron  kettles.  In 
cleaning  up  thev  are  especially  used  as  receptacles  for 
floating  the  gold  amalgam.  The  amalgam,  previous  to 
straining  and  retorting,  is  fioated  in  quicksilver  in  order 
to  free  it  of  all  foreign  substances. 

*  J.  R.  Forbes,  "  Mining  and  Metallurgy  of  Gold  and  Silver.'" 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

BLASTING  GRAVEL  BANKS. 

Where  the  deposits  are  very  strongly  cemented  blast- 
ing is  necessary. 

The  ordinary  method  of  blasting  gravel  banks  is  as 
follows  :  A  drift  is  run  in  from  the  face  on  the  bottom  of 
the  deposit  a  distance  proportionate  to  the  height  of  the 
bank  (as  a  general  rule  not  over  three-quarters  of  this  for 
high  banks)  and  the  character  of  the  ground  to  be  moved. 
From  the  end  of  this  drift  a  cross  drift  is  driven  each  way 
(forming  a  T).  The  cross  drift  is  charged  with  kegs  of 
powder,  the  main  drift  is  securely  tamped  by  tilling  it  up 
solid  with  the  material  which  has  been  extracted,  and  the 
powder  is  exploded  by  means  of  a  time  fuse  or  an  electric 
battery.  In  some  instances  when  the  ground  is  "  heavy 
and  bound  "  several  cross  drifts  are  used  The  amount 
of  powder  used  is  determined  by  the  position,  character, 
and  height  of  the  bank,  a  quantity  sufficient  only  to  shat- 
ter the  ground  being  emploved. 

Blast  at  Sinartsville. — The  following  details  of 
several  large  blasts  are  given  as  illustrating  the  general 
facts.  A  blast  of  450  kegs  of  black  powder  was  made  at 
Smartsville  in  hard  cement  with  an  80-foot  bank,  the 
ground  being  ordinarily  bound  {i.e.,  with  two  sides  free). 
The  main  powder  drift  was  run  in  from  the  face  of  the 
bank  85  feet,  cross  drifts  being  opened  each  side  40  feet 
and  85  feet  from  the  mouth.  Each  cross  drift  was  45  feet 
long,  and  from  its  ends  and  centres  two  "  lifters  "  were 
driven  at  i-ight  angles  to  it,  extending  respectively  half 
way  to  the  next  cross  drifts  and  to  the  face  of  the  bank. 
After  charging  the  cross  drifts  the  main  drift  was  tamped 
and  the  powder  exploded  by  means  of  an  electric  battery. 


BLASTING   GRAVEL   BANKS. 


207 


The  arrangement  of 
keg  blast  made  by  the 
Company  in  December, 


diagram. 


X  was  a  shaft  74  feet 
the  main  drift,  A,  was  dr 


1^' 


20r 


P' 


-B-^ 


-B-4- 


-i^B- 


15' 


1^' 


X   O SHAFT 
Fig.  59. 

Point  Mine,  Sucker  Flat 


the  powder  chambers  for  a  1,201- 

Smartsville    Hydraulic    Mining 

1868,  is  shown  in  the  following 

deep,  from  the  bottom  of  which 
iven  185  feet.  The  cross  drifts, 
B,  three  in  number,  were  driv^en 
at  distances  respectively  of  70 
teet,  120  teet,  and  170  feet  from 
the  shaft,  X.  They  extended 
each  20  feet  on  one  side  of  the 
main  drift  and  40  feet  on  the 
other  side.  The  several  drifts 
marked  C  are  called  "  lifters." 
Each  "lifter"  was  15  feet  long. 
The  total  length  of  the  drifts 
aggregated  570 feet.  They  were 
2j^  feet  wide  and  ^}4  feet  high 
The  cross  drifts  were  charged 
with  1,201  kegs  (25  pounds  each) 
of  black  powder.  The  main 
drift  was  securely  tamped  from 
the  shaft  to  the  first  cross  drift, 
a  distance  of  70  feet.  The  pow- 
der was  simultaneously  ignited 
by  electricity  at  12  different 
points. 

The  ground  moved  was  270 
feet  long,  180  feet  wide,  with  an 
average  depth  of  100  feet.  The 
cost  of  the  blast  was  about 
$6,000. 

Blue  Point  Blast.— A 
large  blast  of  2.000  kegs  (25 
pounds  each)  was  exploded  De- 
cember 29,  1870,  at  the  Blue 
Nevada  Countv.     The  main  drif*" 


208  BLASTING   GRAVEL   BANKS. 

was  325  feet  long.  Commencing  at  the  upper  end  of  the 
drift,  a  cross  drift  was  run  80  feet  to  the  right  and  120  feet 
to  the  left.  Five  additional  cross  drifts  of  similar  length 
were  driven  from  the  main  drift  50  feet  apart,  the  last  one 
being  opened  at  a  point  75  feet  distant  from  the  entrance 
of  the  tunnel.  There  were  three  lifters  in  this  last  cross 
drift,  two  in  the  left  arm  and  one  at  the  end  of  the  right 
arm.  The  main  drift  was  tamped  from  the  entrance  to 
the  first  cross-drift.  The  drifts  were  3  by  4  feet  in  size. 
The  blast  was  simultaneously  fired  at  ten  different  points 
by  electricity.  The  mass  shattered  was  reported  as  200 
feet  long,  1 50  feet  wide,  and  73  feet  deep. 

At  the  Enterprise  Mine,  Nevada  County,  with  250  feet 
bank,  a  blast  of  1,700  kegs  was  fired. 

Farag^oii  Mine  Blast. — In  1874  there  was  a  blast  of 
700  kegs  black  powder  set  off  at  the  Paragon  Mine,  Placer 
Coimtv.  The  details  of  the  drifts  arranged  for  the  blasts 
are  shown  in  Fig.  60. 

The  main  drift,  A,  was  tamped  for  75  feet  from  the 
near  end,  and  the  cross  drifts  tamped  10  feet  each  way,  a 
space  being  left  in  the  lifters  for  the  expansion  of  the  gas 
generated  by  the  explosion  of  the  powder.  The  drifts 
were  4^^  feet  high  and  5  feet  wide,  and  the  bank  was  1 50 
high.  The  blast  was  fired  by  electricity,  and  the  ground 
covered  by  the  drifts  was  thoroughly  shattered. 

A  blast  of  3,500  pounds  of  giant  powder  No.  2  was  fired, 
in  1872,  in  the  Harriman  and  Taylor  claim  at  Gold  Run, 
Placer  County,  and  is  reported  to  have  thrown  down 
200,000  cubic  yards  of  gravel. 

Dardanelles  Mine  Blast.— At  the  Dardanelles  Hy- 
draulic and  Drift  Mine  near  Forest  Hill,  Placer  County,  a 
blast  was  made  with  36,400  pounds  of  Judson  powder  (old), 
shattering  about  500,000  cubic  yards  of  cement  gravel. 
The  gravel  bank  had  a  face  of  some  1,200  feet  in  length, 
wnth  a  height  of  175  feet.  This  deposit  reposed  on  a  ris- 
ing bed-rock.  Five  parallel  drifts,  180  feet  apart,  were 
run  in  from  the  face  a  length  of  70  feet  each.     From  the 


BLASTI.\(;    GRAVEL    BANKS. 


209 


end  of  each  of  these  drifts  two  arms  (ric^ht  and  leftj  or 
cross  cuts  were  driven  70  feet  long,  thus  leaving  a  space 
of  40  feet  between  the  ends  of  the  cross  cuts  from  the 
several  main  drifts.  The  powder,  in  50-pound  boxes,  was 
charged  in  lots  of  1,000  to  1,500  pounds  in  the  difTerent 
chambers.    In  each  chamber  three  exploders  were  placed 


B     60' 


B        70' 


30' 
t 


33' 


Fig.  60. 

in  the  powder,  each  exploder  being  carefullv  connected 
by  an  insulated  copper  wire  with  the  main  wires  on  the 
outside  of  the  drifts. 

The  drifts  were  all  well  tamped  with  cla}'  and  boul- 
ders. The  wires  from  the  exploders  connected  t)utside  of 
the  main  drifts  with  two  copper  wires  from  an  electro- 
magnetic battery  which  was  situated  to  the  right  and 
about  200  feet  from  the  face  of  the  bank.  When  every- 
thing was  ready  (November  8,  1879)  the  blast  was  fired. 
The  back  ground  was  raised  bodily  4  or  5  feet,  and  the 
face  was  thrown  forward. 


2IO  BLASTING   GRAVEL   BANKS. 

At  the  Blue  Tent  Mine,  Nevada  County,  in  1880,  a 
bank  200  feet  high  was  thrown  down  with  43,000  pounds 
of  powder. 

Bljistiiig-  Powder. — Common  blasting  powder  was 
almost  universally  used  up  to  1876.  Since  that  time 
Judson  powder  has  been  introduced,  and  combinations  of 
black  blasting  powder  and  Giant  powder  also  have  been 
experimented  with.  Giant  powder  is  extensivel}^  used  for 
breaking  up  lava,  pipe -clay,  boulders,  trunks  and  stumps 
of  trees,  for  all  of  which  purposes  it  is  found  to  be  very 
efficient. 

3Ietliods  of  Blasting. — In  certain  districts  it  is 
customary  to  wash  off  the  top  or  lighter  gravel  and  subse- 
quently blast  the  bottom  cement.  For  this  purpose  shafts 
15  to  20  feet  deep  are  sunk  to  the  bed-rock,  and  a  small 
chamber  is  excavated  at  the  bottom.  This  chamber  is 
charged  with  a  few  kegs  of  powder  and  tamped,  and  a 
blast  is  fired  b}'  means  of  a  fuse. 

The  want  of  proper  information  concerning  the  use 
and  application  of  powder  to  bank-blasting  has  undoubt- 
edly caused  a  great  waste  of  explosives,  and  the  subject 
is  well  worthy  of  investigation  with  a  view  to  futui-e  im- 
provement. 

In  blasting  gravel  banks  it  is  desirable  to  thorough- 
I3'  shatter  the  material.  To  accomplish  this  purpose 
one  must  be  governed  by  the  character  of  the  ground 
in  the  selection  of  the  powder.  In  hard  cemented  de- 
posits quick  powders  like  the  Judson  (a  low-grade  nitro- 
glycerine powder)  and  the  Vulcan  B  B  are  found  to  work 
better  than  black  powder ;  while  the  latter  does  fully  as 
much  work  in  softer  ground,  a  slow-lifting  powder  is  in 
such  cases  all  that  is  requisite. 

With  very  high  banks  it  is  more  economical  to  blow 
out  the  bottom  and  not  attempt  to  raise  the  superincum- 
bent mass.  The  charge  should  be  placed  so  that  the  line 
of  least  resistance  is  horizontal. 

With  banks  from  50  to   150  feet  high,  and  likewise  in 


BLASTING   GRAVEL  BANKS.  211 

cement  gravel  of  ordinary  tenacity,  the  following  method 
has  been  found  to  give  excellent  results. 

The  main  drift  should  be  run  in  a  distance  of  two-thirds 
the  height  of  the  bank  to  be  blasted.  The  cross  drifts 
from  the  end  of  the  main  drift  should  be  driven  parallel 
with  the  face  of  the  bank,  and  their  lengths  determined 
by  the  extent  of  the  ground  which  is  to  be  moved.  A 
single  T  is  all  that  is  necessary. 

The  minimum  amount  of  powder  required  is  from  lo 
to  20  pounds  per  1,000  cubic  feet  of  ground  covered  by 
the  drifts.  The  quantity  used  necessarily  varies  with  the 
character  of  the  gravel.  When  the  banks  are  strongly 
bound  or  the  gravel  is  very  tenacious  the  quantity  must 
be  increased.  Small  blasts,  everything  else  being  equal, 
require  a  larger  amount  in  proportion  to  the  ground  than 
large  ones,  varying  in  practice  from  10  to  50  pounds  for 
each  1,000  cubic  feet.  It  is  usually  expected  that  a  blast 
will  prepare  nearly  double  the  quantity  of  the  ground 
covered  by  the  drifts. 

The  annexed  table  is  a  record  of  all  the  large  bank  blasts 
fired  on  the  Milton  Mining  and  Water  Company's  property 
Rt  Manzanita  Hill,  Sweetland,  Nevada  Countv,  during  a 
period  of  three  years.  These  blasts  were  made  under  the 
immediate  direction  of  Richard  Thomas,  foreman. 

The  top  gravel  had  been  previously  washed  off,  leav- 
ing banks  from  50  to  150  feet  in  height.  The  gravel  is 
usually  hard,  and  cemented  for  50  feet  (rarely  higher) 
from  the  bottom.  Above  this  cemented  material  the 
:gravel  is  comparatively  soft  and  easily  broken,  and 
therefore  the  amount  of  powder  employed  is  propor- 
tionately lessened  as  the  banks  increase   in   height. 

From  the  appearance  of  the  ground  subsequently 
washed  it  was  estimated  that  225  to  230  cubic  feet 
were  shattered  per  pound  of  powder  exploded.* 

•  "  Report  upon  the  Blasting  Operations  at  Lime  Point,  California,  by  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  G.  H.  Mendell,  Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  A.,"  gives  interesting  details  of  large 
tlasts  in  rock  formation. 


TABLE  XXIV. 
Bank  Blasting  at  the  Manzanita  Mi7ie,  Sweetlahd,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal. 


A 

B 

C 

AxBxC 

V. 

°  l.^.-6 

J2   C 

0 

0 

"     —• 

*-    3   S 

Date. 

1        ti-^' 

.J 

X.   .J, 

V     t: 

^■S^e 

■CM 

c'C 

•5  a 

|k 

■|°l 

£  0 

Ills 

X 

2 

V 

0    "-" 

a. 

C  ^     «     w 

a. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Ctibic  feet. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

February,  I S79. . 

67 

65 

124 

550,000 

6,750 

'i.i.l'] 

March,  '      •'    . . 

56 

36 

86 

173.000 

2,150 

12.43 

"               "'    . . 

107 

90 

151 

i,454.oto 

15,250 

10.50 

"               "    . . 

90 

42 

56 

212,000 

2,000 

9-43 

April,           "    .  . 

83 

75 

82 

510.000 

5,qoo 

10.78 

May,             "    .. 

86 

74 

114 

725,000 

8,550 

11.80 

June,             "    .  . 

70 

56 

169 

662,000 

8.500 

12.77 

"                 "    . . 

100 

S3 

159 

1,304,000 

16,000 

12.27 

July, 

80 

61 

82 

400.000 

5.300 

13.25 

August,       "    .. 

78 

66 

"7 

602,000 

10,500 

17-44 

September,"    .. 

55 

46 

79 

200,000 

4,000 

20. 

"           "    . . 

40 

46 

66 

121,000 

2,000 

16.52 

"           "    . . 

82 

70 

124 

712,000 

11,250 

15.80 

October        " 

70 

53 

113 

419,000 

7,000 

16.70 

January,   i83o. . 

35 

44 

72A 

11 1. 000 

2,000 

18. 

"              "    . . 

60 

60 

80 

288,(.oo 

5,100 

17.70 

February,    "    . . 

30 

76t% 

80 

183,000 

3,100 

16.94 

April,           "    . . 

85 

8-, 

138 

973,000 

14,500 

14.90 

"                "    . . 

70 

44 

55 

i6g,ooo 

3,250 

19.22 

Ma}',             "    . . 

95 

79 

114 

855,000 

16,250 

19. 

June,            "    . . 

16 

41 

42 

27,000 

625 

22.72 

"                 "    . . 

60 

57 

98 

355.000 

5,625 

16.80 

'•                 "    . . 

70 

71 

139 

691,000 

13,000 

18.81 

July,             "    .. 

60 

54 

106 

343.000 

6,300 

18.37 

"                 "    . . 

45 

51 

90 

206,000 

4,500 

21.79 

August,       "    . . 

85 

75 

155 

988,000 

14,500 

14.67 

September,"    . . 

70 

66 

136 

628,000 

12,000 

19. 11 

November,"    .. 

50 

56 

log 

305  000 

5,000 

16.39 

"            "    . . 

80 

78 

150 

936,000 

13,500 

14.42 

December,  "    . . 

100 

105 

128 

1,344,000 

18,750 

14. 

March,      1881.. 

100 

87 

163 

1,418,000 

14,000 

9.87 

April,           "    .. 

90 

90 

i6^ 

1,336,000 

14,000 

10.47 

i(                (( 

35 

40 

62 

87,000 

2,500 

28.74 

May,             "    '.'. 

90 

69 

89 

553,000 

8,750 

15.82 

"                 "    . . 

95 

80 

126 

958,000 

13,750 

14-35 

June,            "    . . 

no 

89 

148 

1,449,000 

17,500 

12.08 

"                "    . . 

57 

61 

79 

275,000 

3,800 

13.80 

July,              "    .. 

65 

65 

145 

613,000 

8,000 

13.05 

"                   "    . . 

no 

63 

97 

672,000 

9,500 

14.13 

August,       "    . . 

45 

52 

67 

157, 000 

3,350 

21.33 

it                           66 

100 

89 

157 

1,397,000 

16,000 

11.45 

'*                            '          .   . 

85 

81 

132 

909.000 

13.000 

14-30 

Sepfmber, "    . . 

100 

45 

93 

418,000 

5,000 

11.96 

"           "    . . 

100 

80 

128 

1,024,000 

15,000 

14.65 

October,      "    . . 

90 

76 

127 

869.000 

13,000 

14.96 

"             "     . . 

100 

54 

124 

670,000 

8,000 

11.94 

November,"    .  . 

70 

63 

lOI 

465,000 

6,500 

14- 

"            "    . . 

70 

57 

45 

180,000 

6,500 

36.11 

Totals 

45 

50 

90 

202,000 

4,500 

22.27 

3.632 

3,194-fTJ 

30,098,000 

425.400 

Averages 

February,  1883.. 

74tV 

65^ 
65.5 

1091% 

1,530.735 

9,500 

14.13 

190 

123 

6.20 

March,         "    . . 

190 

81 

136 

2,093,040 

14,000 

6.68 

In  the  blasts  here  recorded  Judson  powder  chiefly  \va=;  used,  only 
Black  powder  and  Vulcan  H  I!. 


small  proportion  bein|f 


BLASTING   GRAVEL   BANKS. 


213 


Firing  by  Electricity.— The  firing  of  blasts  by 
means  of  electricity  requires  that  great  care  should  be 
taken  of  the  wires  while  tamping,  and  where  dynamite 
exploders  with  platinum  wires  are  used  the  "compound 
circuit  "  is  most  desirable.  A  paper  entitled  "  On  the 
Simultaneous  Ignition  of  Thousands  of  Mines,"  by  Julius 
H.  Striedinger,  published  in  the  "  Transactions  "  for  June, 
1877,  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  con- 
tains much  valuable  information  on  tiie  subject. 

In  charging  the  drifts  the  powder  (in  boxes  or  kegs)  is 
piled  up  in  rows;  two  wires,  A  A  and  U  D  (see  Fig.  61), 


extend  along  the  middle  row,  the  tops  of  the  boxes  on 
which  wires  rest  being  removed.  The  exploders,  b,  b,  b, 
are  inserted  in  giant-powder  cartridges  and  placed  on 
top  of  the  paper  covering  the  powder. 

The  wires  A  A  and  D  D  are  then  C(^nnected  with  the 
wires  Y  Y'  and  Z  Z',  which  extend  to  the  battery. 

Tamping. — Great  care  should  be  used  to  prevent 
the  "blowing-out"  of  the  tamping,  which  results  not 
only  in  considerable  loss  of  effect,  but  often  causes  great 
destruction  to  property  and  even  to  life.  It  is  advisable, 
when  firing  blasts  by  fuse,  to  tamp  nearly  the  entire  main 
drift.  The  gravel  extracted  from  the  drift  is  used  for 
this  purpose,  and  should  be  fairl}^  dry  and  as  free  as  possi- 
ble from  large  stones,  which  cause  great  damage  in  case 


214  BLASTING   GRAVEL   BANKS. 

of  a  blow-out.  The  tamping  must  be  firmly  rammed  by 
wooden  mauls,  so  that  it  will  not  settle  from  the  roof  of 
the  drift.  In  order  to  guard  against  failure  through 
defective  fuse  it  is  customary  to  use  two  or  three  lines, 
which  are  simultaneously  ignited. 

Firing  by  electricity  has  the  advantage  of  requiring 
less  tamping  and  of  permitting  it  to  be  placed  in  the  cross 
drifts  between  the  two  chambers  of  powder,  which  are 
simultaneously  fired — a  result  that  could  not  be  effected 
by  fuse.  The  force  from  the  explosion  from  the  two 
chambers,  acting  upon  the  tamping  from  opposite  sides, 
prevents  its  being  blown  out ;  and  therefore  when  drifts 
are  fired  in  this  way  it  is  necessary  to  tamp  but  a  short 
distance  in  the  cross  drifts  and  but  a  few  feet  in  the  main 
drift. 

Owing,  however,  to  the  many  failures  arising  from  de- 
fective batteries  and  connections,  the  miners  generally 
have  abandoned  the  use  of  the  electric  battery. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

TUNNELS  AND  SLUICES. 

Tuiiiiels. — Tunnels  are  run  for  the  purpose  of  open- 
ing gravel  claims  (where  open  cuts  are  impossible  on  ac- 
count of  the  formation  of  the  ground),  and  also  to  afford 
proper  facilities  for  removing  the  washed  material. 

A  tunnel  should  be  driven  well  into  the  channel  be- 
fore any  connection  is  made  with  the  surface. 

Shafts  for  Tunnels. — The  shaft  which  connects 
with  the  headings  should  be  vertical,  though  in  some 
cases  inclines  have  been  used.  Its  size  is  determined 
by  the  requirements  of  the  work,  and  varies,  for  ordi- 
nary cases,  from  3  by  3  feet  to  4^  by  9  feet  in  the 
clear.  When  raising  from  the  tunnel  due  precaution 
should  be  taken  against  accidents  arismg  from  the  rush 
of  water,  sand,  and  gravel,  which  is  liable  to  occur  on 
tapping  the  bottom  of  a  deposit.  A  shaft  4^  bv  9 
feet  should  be  divided  into  two  compartments,  one  of 
which  will  serve  as  a  man-way.  A  C()mj)aitment  4  by 
4  feet  in  the  clear  is  ample  for  the  water-way.  ' 

It  may  be  noted  that  a  vertical  shaft,  when  properly 
timbered,  is  the  most  desirable  and  economical  for  open- 
ing hydraulic  claims,  and  with  drops  of  300  feet  no  trouble 
has  been  experienced.  There  is  no  difTficultv  in  connect- 
ing directly  with  the  tunnel  where  the  work  is  done  well 
and  the  mine  properly  opened.  But  where  washing  is 
going  on  through  a  shaft  into  a  tunnel  in  process  of  ex- 
tension, it  is  convenient  to  have  the  shaft  located  at  one 
side  and  connected  with  the  tunnel  by  a  short  drift.  By 
this  means  the  work  in  the  tunnel  can  progress  while  the 
washins:  is  carried  on. 


2l6  TUNNELS   AND   SLUICES. 

Shaft  Timbering;.— Where  a  shaft  is  in  hard  rock, 
and  no  man- way  is  needed,  timbering  is  unnecessary  ;  but 
in  soft  rock  or  gravel,  to  avoid  any  accident  or  delay  the 
shafts  should  be  strongly  timbered,  closely  lagged,  and 
lined  on  the  inside  with  blocks  (6  to  lo  inches  thick)  to 
within  8  to  30  feet  of  the  surface,  the  depth  being  depen- 
dent on  the  softness  of  the  gravel.  This  top,  being  the 
first  washed  off,  thereby  gives  the  initial  grade  for  the 
ground  sluices.  As  washing  proceeds  the  upper  lining 
and  timbers  are  removed  to  enable  the  material  to  be 
drawn  into  the  shaft.  A  shaft  in  hard  rock  can  be  par- 
titioned for  a  man- way  with  stoU-timbers  firmly  wedged 
and  blocked. 

No  extraordinary  precaution  is  required  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  bottom  of  the  shaft,  the  material  washed 
being  allowed  to  drop  directly  on  the  bed  rock,  where  it 
soon  wears  a  hole,  in  which  the  large  stones  from  the 
mine  lodge  and  form  a  pavement.  At  the  junctiijn  of  the 
shaft  and  the  tunnel  the  latter  should  be  increased  in 
height  at  least  50  or  75  per  cent. 

Second  Shaft. — With  long  tunnels  it  is  advisable  to 
sink  a  second  shaft  at  a  convenient  distance  from  the 
heading.  Formerly,  as  a  precautionary  measure,  a  man 
was  placed  in  the  tunnel  to  watch  the  washings,  and  in 
such  cases  a  second  shaft  was  indispensable.  It  is  now 
customary,  when  washing  into  a  shaft,  to  provide  a  swing- 
ing door  over  the  sluice,  about  75  feet  below  its  head,  and 
connected  by  chain  and  ropes  to  a  signal  on  top  of  the 
shaft  which  gives  the  pipe-men  notice  in  case  of  overflow. 

Should  an  accident  occur  at  the  main  shaft  by  its  cav- 
ing or  closing  up,  the  second  shaft  might  afford  the  neces- 
sary facilities  for  continuing  the  work.  When  a  line  of 
pipe  is  carried  down  the  second  shaft  for  the  purpose  of 
assisting  in  openmg  the  closed  one,  great  precaution  must 
be  used  in  piping,  particularly  if  the  closed  shaft  is  filled 
with  water.  When  this  expedient  has  to  be  resorted  to 
it  is  usual  to  place  the  pipes  in  position  and  withdraw  the 


TUNNELS   AND   SLUICES.  21'J 

workmen  belore  the  water  is  turned  on  ;  and  if  the  block- 
ade is  not  broken  in  a  reasonable  time  the  water  is  shut 
off,  men  go  down  and  extend  the  pipes  nearer  the  block- 
ade, and  again  the  water  is  turned  on,  and  the  operation 
is  continued  until  the  blockade  is  broken.  If  the  shaft  or 
tunnel  is  closed  by  gravel  mixed  Avith  heavy  boulders  it 
is  necessary  often  to  employ  powder. 

First  Washing. — The  first  washings  through  a  shaft 
should  be  done  with  care,  and  the  surface  within  as  great 
a  radius  as  can  be  conveniently  washed  and  drawn  should 
be  cleared  on  all  sides  before  taking  of?  the  top  timbers. 
Attempts  to  push  this  preliminary  work  have  frequently 
caused  an  overcrowding  of  the  shaft,  resulting  in  its 
filling  up  or  caving.  It  is  therefore  essential  that  the 
gravel  should  be  run  so  as  to  avoid  the  rush  of  material 
from  caves. 

Size  of  Tunnel. — The  size  of  the  tunnel  is  generally 
dependent  on  the  size  of  the  sluice.  It  is  usually  driven 
2  to  3  feet  wider  than  the  inside  width  of  the  sluice,  and 
7^  to  8  feet  high.  These  proportions  permit  the  proper 
construction  of  the  sluice  and  give  sufficient  room  for  the 
blocks  and  for  the  workmen  when  cleaning  up.  The 
grade  depends  on  the  topograph}-  of  the  country. 

Location  of  Tnnnels. — In  locating  the  mouth  of  a 
drainage  tunnel  (or  of  an  open  cut)  that  point  is  to  be 
selected  from  which  the  sluices,  running  on  the  most 
direct  practicable  line,  with  a  given  grade,  can  bottom  the 
maximum  extent  of  the  "  pay  channel  "  at  the  smallest 
expense.  Due  regard  should  be  had  to  the  dump,  and 
allowances  made  for  contingencies  arising  from  changes, 
such  as  depressions  and  holes  in  the  bed-rock. 

Where  the  bed-rock  disintegrates  on  exposure  to  the 
air  an  extra  allowance  for  depth  is  advisable.  This  ad- 
ditional depth  is  a  matter  of  judgment,  and  is  regulated 
by  the  character  and  peculiarities  of  the  bed-rock,  extent 
•of  ground  to  be  worked,  and  the  position  of  the  shaft.  It 
is  always  possible  to  "  ease  up"  the  grade;  bijt  it  the  iiKun 


2l8  TUNNELS   AND   SLUICES. 

line  of  drainage  is  once  fixed  and  proves  to  be  too  high, 
it  is  a  source  of  endless  expense,  frequently  fatal  to  the 
enterprise.  Many  instances  could  be  cited  where,  for 
want  of  properly  conducted  preliminary  investigations, 
tunnels  have  been  driven  on  too  high  a  level  and  thereby 
the  enterprises  have  resulted  in  failures.  "*     , 

At  the  Pioneer  Mine,  Grass  Flat,  Plumas  County,  the 
original  owners  in  opening  their  claim  ran  a  tunnel  4,000 
feet  long.  When  midway  in  the  channel  the  tunnel  was 
found  to  be  22  feet  above  the  bed-rock.  The  sum  of  $60,- 
000  expended  in  this  work  was  a  total  loss,  and  the  sub- 
sequent purchasers  were  obliged  to  expend  over  $100,000 
in  properly  opening  the  mine. 

SLUICES. 

The  name  "  sluice "  was  originally  applied  bv  the 
miner  to  the  sluice  box.  Subsequently  several  sluice 
boxes  were  joined  together  for  permanent  washing,  and 
the  word  "  flume  "  was  used  synonymously.  The  word 
s/7a'ce  used  in  the  text  refers  only  to  troughs,  cuts,  or 
boxes  in  which  or  through  which  gravel  or  dirt  is 
washed,  in  contradistinction  to  the  term  flume,  which  is 
applied  solely  to  wooden  structures  used  for  water  con- 
duits. 

To  secure  the  maximum  discharge  sluices  should  be 
set  on  straight  lines  so  far  as  possible,  and  where  curves 
occur  the  outer  side  of  the  box  should  be  slightly  raised, 
in  (^rder  to  cause  a  more  general  distribution  of  the  ma- 
terials over  the  riffles.  When  lines  of  sluices  have  fre- 
quent curves  it  is  customary  to  make  no  changes  in  the 
grades,  although  to  secure  the  greatest  flow  of  material 
doubtless  provision  should  be  made  to  overcome  retarda- 
tion by  increased  grades  at  and  below  the  curves.  Sluices 
with  drops  are  highly  desirable  for  saving  gold. 

Grade. — The  facility  with  which  gravel  can  be  moved 
depends  mainly  on  the  inclination  which  is  given  to  the 


TUNNELS   AND    SLUICES.  219 

sluices.  The  question  of  grade  is  therefore  one  of  vital 
importance,  and  to  properly  investigate  and  determine 
this  point  great  care  and  skill  are  requisite.  When  the 
topography  of  the  country  admits  of  unlimited  fall  the 
grade  upon  which  the  sluices  are  set  should  be  regulated 
by  the  character  of  the  gravel.  Where  the  wash  is  coarse 
and  cemented,  requiring  blasting,  or  where  there  is  much 
pipe-clay,  a  heavy  grade  is  necessary.  Strongly  cement- 
ed gravel  requires  drops  to  break  it  up. 

General  Grade  Adopted. — Experience  thus  far  has 
led  to  the  adoption  in  most  localities  of  what  is  called  a  6 
or  6^-inch  grade,  meaning  6  or  6^  inches  to  the  box  12 
feet  long,  or,  say,  a  4  to  4^  per  cent,  grade.  In  some 
places,  where  large  quantities  of  pipe-clay  are  washed  off, 
9  and  12-inch  grades  to  the  box  are  used  (6  to  8  per  cent.) 
In  others,  on  account  of  natural  obstacles  encountered,  a 
i^  per  cent,  grade,  or  2^  to  3  inches  per  box  of  16  feet,  is 
used. 

Light  gravel  containing  clay  or  earthy  matter  can  be 
moved  on  an  easier  grade  and  with  less  water  than  heavv 
gravel ;  nevertheless,  when  a  4^  per  cent,  grade  can  be 
obtained  it  is  desirable,  as  it  lessens  the  labor  of  handling 
rocks  and  more  material  can  be  washed.  Moreover,  as 
light  gravel  is  generally  poor  in  gold,  this  deficiencv 
can  be  made  up  only  by  washing  large  quantities.  Light 
gravel  requires  that  the  water  should  be  run  with  suf- 
ficient force  to  carry  off  the  rocks  washed  through  the 
sluice,  and  yet  be  in  only  sufficient  volume  to  prevent 
the  packing  of  black  and  heavy  sand.  If  too  much  water 
is  used  by  superincumbent  pressure  the  sand  drops  and 
packs  the  rifHes. 

The  best  results  are  obtained  with  shallow  streams  on 
light  grades.  Coarse  gravel  demands  from  four  to  seven 
per  cent,  grades  and  a  proportionate  increase  of  water. 
In  washing  this  heavy  material  the  water  in  the  sluice 
should  be  deep  enough  (10  to  12  inches)  to  cover  the 
largest  boulders  ordinarih'  sent  down. 


220  TUNNELS   AND   SLUICES. 

As  a  larger  volume  of  water  is  sent  through  a  sluice 
running  heavy  cement  gravel,  more  material  can  be  trans- 
ported and  washed  if  a  proper  proportion  of  light  and 
heavy  gravel  is  made.  The  rocks  and  cement,  as  dis- 
charged into  the  sluices,  keep  the  sand  stirred  and  pre- 
vent its  packing,  while  the  cement,  rolling  along  the 
sluice,  is  disintegrated. 

At  Forest  Hill  Divide  some  of  the  mines  use  a  grade 
of  lo  to  24  inches  per  12  feet.  The  reason  for  this  exces- 
sive grade  is  the  scarcit}''  of  water  and  the  heavy  material, 
it  being  necessary  to  run  rocks  as  large  as  can  pass 
through  a  four-foot  flume. 

Size  of  Sluice. — The  size  of  the  sluice  depends  on 
the  grade,  character  of  the  gravel,  and  quantity  of  water 
to  be  used.  A  sluice.  6  feet  wide  and  36  inches  deep  on  a 
4  or  5  per  cent,  grade  will  sufhce  for  running  2.000  to 
3,500  inches  of  water.  One  4  feet  wide,  30  inches  deep, 
on  a  grade  of  4  inches  to  16  feet,  will  suffice  for  800  to 
1,500  inches  of  water,  and  on  a  4  per  cent,  grade  it  is 
large  enough  for  2,000  inches.  A  sluice  3  feet  wide  and 
30  inches  deep,  with  a  i^  per  cent,  grade,  is  suitable  for 
600  to  1,000  inches. 

As  to  the  length,  the  principle  is  to  construct  the  line 
sufficiently  long  to  insure  the  most  complete  disintegra- 
tion of  the  material,  affording  ample  surface  for  the  grind- 
ing of  the  cement,  and  the  best  facilities  for  the  gold  to 
settle  in  the  riffles.  The  length  of  the  sluice  employed 
should  be  governed  by  its  yield,  the  rule  being  to  keep 
extending  the  sluice  so  long  as  the  yield  exceeds  the  ex- 
pense. 

Details  of  Coiistriictioii.— Sluices  of  a  width  of 
4  feet  and  upward  are  made  of  i  ^  or  2  inch  plank,  with 
sills  and  posts  of  4  by  4  or  4  by  6  inch  scantling.  To 
guard  against  leakage  of  quicksilver  it  is  important  that 
the  bottom  should  be  tight..  To  secure  this  the  bottom 
planks  should  be  of  half-seasoned  lumber,  free  from  knots, 
and   the  joints  grooved  and  a  dr}-,  soft  pine  tongue  in- 


TUNNELS   AND    SLUICES.  221 

serted.  The  bottom  and  sides  are  spiked  together  gene- 
rally Avith  nails  four  inches  apart.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
plane  either  the  bottom  or  side  planks.  In  many  cases  the 
planks  are  simply  fitted  well  and  closel}^  nailed  together. 

The  sills  are  placed  from  3  to  4  feet  apart,  depend- 
ing upon  the  size  of  the  scantling  used,  which  is  regulated 
by  the  width  of  the  sluice ;  thus  a  4-foot  sluice  would  re- 
quire a  sill  7  feet  long,  of  4  by  6  or  4  by  4  inch  stuff.  The 
posts  are  halved  into  the  sills  and  firmly  spiked,  and  every 
second  or  third  post  should  be  supported  by  an  angle 
brace.  The  bottom  planks  should  be  solidly  secured  to 
the  sills  by  a  liberal  use  of  heavy  spikes.  The  bottom  of 
a  new  sluice  is  liable  to  be  raised  by  the  pressure  of  the 
water  which  collects  under  it  and  finds  no  discharge. 
To  avoid  this  the  flume  should  be  heavily  weighted  down 
by  loading  the  ends  of  the  sills  with  stones.  In  tunnels 
the  ends  of  the  sills  can  be  held  down  by  braces  extend- 
ing to  the  rock  overhead. 

North  Bloonifield  Tunnel  Sluice. — The  annexed 
diagrams  give  the  detailed  construction  of  the  tunnel 
sluice  box  used  at  the  North  Bloomficld  Mine.  The  box 
is  6  feet  wide  and  12  feet  long,  with  sides  32  inches  deep. 

To  each  sluice  box  are  used  : 

8  Posts 4  inches  X    6  inches  X    3  feet  2  inches. 

4  Sills 4      "        X    6       "      X    8    " 

3  Bottom  planks 2      "        X  24       "       X  12    " 

4  Side  planks i^o  "        X  16       "       X  12    " 

2  Top  rails 2      "        X    S       "       X  12    " 

16  Braces 2      "        X    4       "       X    2    " 

On  the  outside  of  the  tunnel  the  sills  and  braces  are 
longer.  The  nails  for  the  bottoms  are  30^/.,  for  the  sides 
20c/.  The  side  lining,  composed  of  worn  blocks  when 
available,  is  3  inches  thick,  18  to  20  inches  deep,  and  is  set 
2^  to  35^  inches  above  the  bottom.  The  riffle  strips, 
between  the  blocks,  are  ij^  by  3  inches  and  5  feet  \iy< 
inches  long.  The  blocks  are  13  inches  deep  and  20>^ 
inches  square,  and  average  about  19  to  the  box.     Where 


Fig.  64. 


Fig.  62. 


Figs.  62,  63.  and  64.     Tunnel  Sluice  Box  at  North  Bloomfield. 


TUNNELS   AND   SLUICES. 


223 


Stone  riffles  are  used  the  bottom  of  the  sluice  is  hned 
with  rough  plank. 

The  top  sluice  on  one  side  is  for  carrying  sipage  water 
when  the  blocks  are  being  set.  It  is  13  inches  wide  and 
14  inches  deep,  and  is  made  of  i^-inch  plank. 

Bed-Kock  Claiiu  Sluice  Boxes.— At  the  Bed-Rock 
Claim,  Nevada  County,  the  tunnel  sluice  boxes  are  14 
feet  long,  5  feet  wide,  and  32  inches  deep.  The  details  of 
a  box  are  as  follows  : 

4  Sills 4  inches  X 

8  Posts 4 

16  Braces iji 

2  Top  rails 2 

3  Bottom  planks i J^ 

2  Tongues   i 

2  Side  planks i% 

2    "        "     lA 

9  Rilifle  strips i}^ 

28  Lineal  feet  side  lining  (blocks  3  inches  X  20  inches). 

28  Lineal  feet  bracing  to  hold  down  sluice,  4  inches  X  6  inches. 
27  Blocks,  17  inches  square,  13  inches  deep. 

In  the  construction  of  a  box  there  are  used  : 

Lumber  and  side  lining,  650  feet,  at  $20 $13  00 

Blocks,                                704    "     "$14 9  S6 

Nails,                                      20  lbs.   "       5  cents i  OO 

Labor  at  $2  50  to  $3  per  day 7  00 

Cost  per  box S30  86 

La  Grange  Sluice  Boxes. — At  the  La  Grange 
Mine,  Tuolumne  County,  a  sluice  box  4  feet  wide,  32 
inches  deep,  and  16  feet  long  is  built  as  follows : 

4  Sills 4  inches  X    6  inches  X    7  feet. 


ches  X  £> 

nches 

X  7 

eet. 

"   X  6 

X  3 

"  2  inches 

"   X  4 

X  2 

"   X  7 

X14 

X  20 

X  14 

"  xy2 

X14 

X  20 

X14 

"    X  12 

X14 

"   X  3 

X  5 

2  End  posts 4      " 

6  Intermediate  posts 4      " 

16  Braces i      " 

2  Bottom  planks I/2  " 

4  Side  planks     ^}4  " 

2  Side  linings i}{  " 

2  Top  rails l}4  " 

12  Riffle  bars i^  " 

Aggregating  420  feet  of  lumber. 
36  Blocks,  14  inches  square  and  8  inches  deep. 


X  6   ' 

X  3 

X  4   ' 

'   X  3 

X  6   • 

'   X  3 

X24   ' 

X  16 

X  16   ' 

X  16 

X  8   ' 

X  16 

X  8   ' 

'   X  16 

X  2   ' 

'   X  4 

2  inches. 


224  TUNNELS   AND   SLUICES. 

To  each  box  15  pounds  of  nails  are  used— viz. ; 

12  Nails,  loa^.,  side  lining  to  sides. 


160 
40 
76 
36 
32 
64 
50 
50 


12a'.,  braces  to  posts  and  sills. 
lod.,  posts  to  sills. 

"      sides  to  bottoms. 

"      blocks  to  riffle  bars. 

"      bottom  sides  to  posts. 

"      top  sides  "     " 

30(/.,  bottoms  to  sills. 

"      top  rails  to  posts  and  sides. 


The  cost  per  box  was : 

420  feet  lumber,  at    3  cents  per  foot $12  60 

36  Blocks,          "35      "     1260 

15  lbs.  Nails,     "    0,}^"'     64 

Labor  at  $1  to  $2  50  per  day 2  50 


Total $28  34 

Riffles. — The  use  of  riffles  dates  back  to  the  earliest 
days  of  gold-washing.  Blankets,  hides  with  the  hair 
turned  uppermost,  and  grass  sods  were  employed  by  the 
primitive  South  American  miners,  and  also  steps  cut  in 
the  bare  bed-rock.  In  California  every  variety  has  been 
tried,  but  blocks  and  rocks  are  now  generally  used. 

The  character  of  the  riffle  employed  is  dependent 
upon  the  length  of  the  sluice,  while  the  length  of  the 
sluice,  in  turn,  depends  upon  the  hardness  of  the  gravel, 
and  more  especially  upon  the  character  of  the  gold — scale 
gold,  with  large  amounts  of  black  sand  and  fine  sulphur- 
ets,  escaping  all  riffles  for  long  distances. 

Block  Riffles. — Block  riffles  are  square  wooden 
blocks  8  to  13  inches  deep,  set  on  end  in  rows  across  the 
sluice,  with  each  row  separated  by  a  space  of  i  to  i  ^ 
inches.  They  are  kept  in  position  by  riffle  strips,  i  Y^  inches 
thick  by  2  or  3  inches  wide,  held  crosswise  on  the  bottom, 
between  the  rows,  by  the  side  lining,  and  secured  to 
the  blocks  by  means  of  headless  nails.  Block  riffles  are 
also  set  and  firmly  held  in  position  by  means  of  soft  pine 
wedges  driven   between  the  blocks  and  the  sides  of  the 


TUNNELS   AND    SLUICICS. 


--3 


sluice.  When  wedges  are  used  the  sides  of  the  blocks 
should  be  square  where  they  adjoin  one  another.  A  side 
lining  is  required  in  all  sluices,  in  cement  claims  blocks 
3  inches  thick,  and  covering  i8  to  20  inches  (in  depthj  of 
the  side,  are  used  for  side  lining. 

AclvaiitiJge  of  Block  Kitties. — The  advantages  af- 
forded by  blocks,  which  should  always  be  used  at  the 
heads  of  sluices,  are  : 

I  St.  The  cross  riffle  which  they  make  is  not  excelled 
by  any  other  form. 

2d.  Their  cheapness  under  ordinary  conditions  of 
timber  supply. 

3d.  The  convenience  of  cleaning  up,  which  can  be 
quickly  and  cheaply  done. 

This  last  circumstance  is  of  especial  importance,  be- 
cause it  is  often  desirable  to  collect  the  gold  at  frequent 
intervals,  as  it  is  injudicious  to  expose  amalgam  collected 
in  the  riffles  to  wear  by  the  gravel  running  over  it  for 
long  periods. 

Experience  shows  square  block  riffles  to  be  the  best 
for  saving  gold.  The  objection  to  their  use  is  the  cost  of 
wear  and  tear.  Rocks  are  the  most  economical  substi- 
tute, but  sluices  set  with  them  require  steeper  grades  and 
more  water. 

Life  of  Bloclts.— The  life  of  a  block  depends  on  the 
quality  of  the  wood,  the  grade,  the  character  and  quan- 
tit}'  of  the  gravel,  and  the  amount  of  water.  The  larger 
the  amount  of  water  (on  the  same  grade)  in  proportion 
to  that  of  gravel,  the  less  the  wear  of  the  blocks.  The 
quality  of  the  wood  varies  greatlv  in  different  localities. 
The  best  and  most  desirable  timber  comes  from  the 
higher  sierra.  Wood  which  is  long-grained  and  "  brooms 
up"  makes  the  best  riffle.  Hard  timber  which  wears 
smooth  (as  oak)  is  not  desirable.  Nut  pine  is  the  best, 
but  it  is  difflcult  to  obtain.  Pitch  pine  answers  all  re- 
quirements. As  a  rule  the  price  of  lumber  governs  the 
selection. 


226  irNNKLS    AND    SLUICES. 

In  the  6-foot  sluices  of  the  North  Bloomfield  Mine, 
with  a  4^  per  cent,  grade,  the  blocks,  which  are  13  inches 
deep  and  20  inches  square,  last  for  a  run  of  175,000  to 
200,000  inches  of  water.  At  the  Manzanita  and  French 
Corral  mines  the  sluices  are  5  feet  wide  and  have  a  grade 
of  4^  per  cent.  The  blocks,  of  the  same  size  as  the  last, 
but  of  rather  poorer  timber,  have  a  life  generally  of  125,- 
000  to  150,000,  sometimes  of  only  100,000,  inches  of  water. 

At  La  Grange,  in  4-foot  sluices  on  2  per  cent,  grades, 
the  blocks,  14  inches  square  and  8  inches  deep,  are  esti- 
mated to  last  an  average  of  six  months,  during  which  time 
about  100,000  to  110,000  inches  of  water  are  run  over 
them. 

After  each  run  the  blocks  are  turned  and  replaced  in 
the  sluice,  if  not  worn  down  too  much.  A  block  reduced 
to  5,  or  at  most  4,  inches  in  depth  is  considered  unservice- 
able. In  repaving  with  old  blocks  the  edge  worn  down 
the  most  is  placed  up-stream.  As  the  blocks  do  not  fill 
the  whole  width  of  the  sluice,  the  alternate  rows  are  fitted 
so  as  to  break  joints. 

Rock  Riffles. — ^In  many  localities  stones  instead  of 
blocks  are  used  for  riffles,  and  where  heavy  cement  is 
washed  the  former  are  considered  preferable  on  account 
of  their  cheapness.  At  Smartsville  they  have  been  found 
to  serve  fully  as  well  as  blocks,  and  are  claimed  to  be 
cheaper.  It  must  be  stated,  however,  that  they  are  more 
costly  to  handle,  as  longer  time  is  required  to  clean  up 
and  repave  the  sluices. 

The  stone  riffles  as  quarried  are  of  irregular  size  and 
shape,  and  are  set  in  the  sluice  with  a  slight  tilt  down- 
stream. The  hard  rock  used  at  the  Manzanita  Mine, 
Sweetland,  Nevada  County,  costs  about  $10  per  box  (14 
feet  long  and  5  feet  wide). 

Blocks  and  Rocks. — A  system  of  riffles  consisting 
of  a  row  of  blocks  alternating  with  an  equal  section  of 
rocks  has  been  found  to  work  successfully.  This  arrange- 
ment of  the  sluices  reduces  materiallj'  the  wear  and  tear 


TUNNELS  AND   SLUICES.  22/ 

of  the  blocks,  and  has  given  excellent  results.  The  block- 
and-rock  riffles  are  not  desirable  for  those  sluices  which 
have  to  be  frequently  cleaned  up. 

Longitudiutil  Kiffles. — In  some  districts  longitu- 
dinal riffles,  made  of  scantling  placed  lengthwise  in  the 
sluice,  are  preferred.  At  the  Paragon  Mine,  Placer 
County,  where  the  banks  contain  many  large  boulders, 
the  riffles  are  made  of  6-inch  scantling  i  ^  inches  wide,  8 
feet  long,  separated  by  blocks  i  ^  inches  wide  ;  and  an 
iron  bar,  i  ^  inches  wide  and  i  inch  deep  and  8  feet  long, 
is  fastened  on  top  of  each  scantling.  The  grade  of  the 
Paragon  sluices  is  i8  inches  per  1 2-foot  box,  and  the 
width  of  the  sluice  is  44  inches. 

Bed-Rock  Riffles. — In  the  tunnel  of  the  North 
Bloomfield  Mine  the  lower  6,000  feet  are  run  without  a 
sluice,  the  bare  bed-rock  being  used.  Up  to  1877,  7,000,- 
000  cubic  yards  were  washed  through  the  tunnel,  and  an 
examination  at  that  period  showed  that  the  tunnel  had 
been  deepened  about  16  inches,  and,  though  the  sides  were 
worn  smooth,  troughs  and  holes  were  found  hollowed  out 
at  different  places.  A  partial  examination  of  the  tunnel 
made  in  the  fall  of  1882  showed  the  existence  of  many 
holes  in  the  bottom,  in  some  instances  6  feet  deep,  but  the 
wear  on  the  entire  line  may  be  said  to  average  3  feet, 
about  22,000,000  cubic  yards  of  gravel  having  passed 
through  it. 

On  long  sluice  lines  it  is  common  to  use  several  kinds 
of  riffles. 

Branch  Sluices.— Where  the  topography  of  the 
country  compels  the  building  of  branch  sluices,  or 
a  light  dump  requires  the  frequent  change  of  the  tail- 
ings discharge,  great  care  must  be  taken  in  construct- 
ing the  connections  with  the  main  sluice  ;  otherwise,  in 
"turning  into"  and  "turning  out"  from  a  sluice,  the 
gravel  forms  a  bar  either  above  or  below  the  junction. 

Where  heavy  grades  can  be  obtained  no  difficulty 
is  encountered  ;  but  where  the  inclination  is  slight,  good 


228 


TUNNELS   AND   SLUICES. 


judgment  must  be  exercised  m  fixing  the  grades  and 
curves,  in  order  to  make  the  sluices  run  uniformly  and 
draw  the  material. 


Turn-in  Sluice. — The  diagram  shows  a  "  turn-in  " 
sluice  adopted,  after  many  experiments,  at  the  Delaney 
Claim,  Patricksville.  It  was  set  with  what  is  perhaps  the 
sharpest  curve  that  can  be  given,  for  successful  work,  to 
a  sluice  4  feet  wide  and  32  inches  deep,  on  a  3^-inch 
grade  to   16  feet. 

The   amount   of    water  used  was  from    1,000  to   1,400 


TUNNELS   AND    SLUICES.  229 

twenty-four-hour  inches.  The  grade  was  light,  and  dump 
for  the  tailings  could  be  obtained  only  by  means  of  direct 
connection  made  with  the  Patricksville  main  sluice  line. 

With  any  decrease  of  the  radius  the  sluice  would  not 
run  uniformly,  but  would  deposit  tailings.  The  smallest 
radius  of  the  curve  having  been  ascertamed  by  experi- 
ment, the  next  question  that  presented  itself  was.  Would 
the  main  sluice  carry  the  tailings  discharged  into  it?  As 
the  main  sluice  was  straight,  and  the  general  fall  of  the 
ground  slight,  an  attempt  was  made  to  economize  grade 
and  run  this  sluice,  with  its  original  grade  of  3  inches  to 
16  feet,  below  the  junction,  but  the  experiment  was  un- 
successful. The  main  sluice  was  then  taken  up,  and  a 
i^-inch  drop  was  given  from  the  turn- in  sluice  at  the 
junction,  and  the  first  two  boxes  from  this  point  were  set 
on  a  grade  of  4  inches  to  16  feet,  while  the  remaining 
boxes  had  a  31^-inch  grade  to  16  feet.  This  improved 
matters,  but  material  still  accumulated  in  the  main  sluice 
at  the  junction  and  in  the  one  box  below.  The  turn-in 
sluice  was  then  given  a  drop  of  4  inches  at  the  junction, 
and  the  discharge  opening  was  increased  from  11  to  14 
feet  ;   the  sluices  then  ran  uniformly. 

The  outer  curve  of  the  sluice  was  set  a  half-inch 
higher  than  the  inner  side.  The  boxes  forming  the  curve 
were  made  in  lengths  of  8  feet  each,  and  a  grade  of  2 
inches  given  to  each  length.  The  head  of  the  sluice  was 
straight,  as  well  as  the  lower  end  below  the  junction. 

Turn-out  Sluice. — The  "  turn-out  "  sluice  is  gene- 
rally used  when  the  dump-room  is  very  limited.  It  is 
more  difficult  to  operate  on  a  light  grade  than  a  "  turn- 
in  "  sluice. 

At  the  La  Grange  Company's  mines  the  grades  varied 
from  2^  inches  to  4  inches  per  16  feet,  and  the  dump- 
room  was  very  limited,  necessitating  manv  turn-out 
sluices  and  frequent  sharp  curves.  As  the  dumps  filled 
up  the  sluices  were  extended,  and  every  available  space 
was  utilized  which  could  be  reached  with  a  branch  sluice. 


2W 


TUNNELS   AND   SLUICES. 


J 


I 


The  opening  at  the  points  of  divergence  was  origi- 
nally made  14  feet  wide,  and  a  drop 
of  i^  inches  given  from  the  main 
sluice  to  the  turn-out  sluice,  which 
latter  was  set  on  a  *'  swing  "  of  4 
inches  to  16  feet. 

The  sluices  thus  constructed 
were  found  to  run  satisfactorily ; 
but  on  increasing  the  swing  (as 
became  necessary)  to  5  inches  the 
boxes  on  either  side  of  the  junc- 
tion choked,  onl}-  partially  dis- 
charging the  material,  which  diffi- 
culty could  not  be  obviated  by  in- 
creasing the  grade.  On  increasing 
the  width  of  the  discharge  opening 
from  the  main  sluice,  which  was 
gradually  widened  from  14  feet  up 
to  24  feet,  the  sluices  ran  uninter- 
ruptedly and  no  further  difficulty 
was  experienced. 

The  first  box  bottom  was  cut 
in  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  66 — 
that  is,  from  a  point  to  full  width ; 
the  succeeding  half-box,  of  8  feet, 
was  high  on  the  outside,  set  with 
a  slight  increase  in  grade,  and 
given  a  4-inch  swing.  All  the 
other  boxes  were  set  with  a  swing 
of  8  inches  to  the  box,  and  on 
the  grade  of  the  main  sluice  for 
a  total  distance  of  200  feet,  after 
which  it  was  found  necessary  to 
straighten  the  sluice  for  some  dis- 
tance to  give  the  water  opportunity 
'  to  regain  its  velocity.  These  ex- 
periments showed  that  in  a  200-foot  swing  on  a  2  per  cent. 


ri]', 


PLAN 


^ 


TUNNELS   A\l)   SLUICES.  23 1 

grade  this  was  the  greatest  possible  curve  that  could  be 
successfully  given  to  a  4-foot  sluice.  The  curve,  how- 
ever, could  be  increased  in  proportion  to  the  grade. 

At  the  turn-in  and  turn-out  it  is  necessary  to  place  a 
board  diagonally  across  the  main  sluice.  This  concen- 
trates the  discharge  and  prevents  the  forming  of  bars. 

Undercurrents.— In  order  to  relieve  the  sluices  of 
the  finer  material,  and  thereby  aid  in  saving  the  gold,  un- 
dercurrents are  introduced  into  the  sluice  line.  These 
may  be  described  as  broad  sluices  set  on  a  heavy  grade 
at  the  side  of  and  below  the  main  sluice. 

Where  a  drop  off  can  be  made  in  the  main  line,  par- 
allel steel  or  iron  bars,  i  by  4  inches,  with  intervals  of  i 
inch  between  them,  and  10  to  20  in  number,  according  to 
the  size  of  the  undercurrent,  are  placed  edgewise  across 
the  sluice.  A  set  of  such  bars  is  called  a  "  grizzly."  It  is 
set  I  inch  below  the  sluice  pavement,  which  is  raised  as  it 
wears  down.      If  too  low,  the  grizzly  clogs  with  gravel. 

The  coarse  material  passes  over  the  grizzly,  and,  if  the 
topography  permits,  is  dropped  and  picked  up  again  in 
sluices  at  a  lower  level. 

The  finer  gravel  drops  through  the  bars  into  a 
box  about  20  inches  deep,  lined  with  blocks  and  set  at 
right  angles  to  the  main  line.  This  box  carries  the  ma- 
terial to  the  chute  at  the  upper  end  of  the  undercurrent. 

This  chute  is  lined  with  cobbles  and  provided  with 
"  dividers "  of  wood  to  evenly  distribute  the  material 
over  the  surface  of  the  undercurrent.  It  has  a  2  or  3  per 
cent,  grade  and  gradually  narrows  towards  the  lower  end. 

The  undercurrent  proper  is  a  shallow  wooden  box,  20 
to  50  feet  wide,  40  to  50  feet  long,  with  sides  about  16 
inches  high.  It  should  have,  if  possible,  8  to  10  times  the 
width  of  the  main  sluice.  The  bottom  is  made  of  1 52-inch 
plank  tongued  and  grooved,  and  set  on  a  grade  of  8  to  10 
per  cent.,  according  to  the  smoothness  of  the  riffles  em- 
ployed. It  is  paved  with  cobbles,  wooden  rails  shod  with 
strap   iron,  or  small  wooden  blocks.      With   the  smooth 


232 


TUNNELS    AND   SLUICES. 


rails  a  grade  of  12  inches  in  12  feet  is  sufficient;  but  with 
blocks  the  grade  should  be  increased  to  14  inches  in  12 
feet,  and  with  cobbles  to  16  inches  in  12  feet. 

The  gravel  escaping  from  the  undercurrent  is  led  back 
to  the  main  sluice. 

The  chief  cost  of  maintenance  is  occasioned,  not  by  the 
undercurrent  itself,  but  bv  the  repairs  on  the  main  sluice 
and  grizzly,  caused  by  the  introduction  of  the  latter  into 
the  sluice  line.  The  running  expense  of  a  wide  under- 
current is  no  more  than  that  of  a  narrow  one,  excepting 
in  the  slight  matter  of  pavement  and  cleaning  up. 

At  French  Corral,  with  a  tail  sluice  5  feet  wide,  the 
yield  of  the  first  undercurrent,  which  was  20  feet  wide, 
was  20  per  cent,  of  the  yield  of  all  the  undercurrents.  An 
addition  of  10  feet  to  the  width  increased  its  yield  to  27 
per  cent,  of  the  total,  and  the  grizzly  in  the  main  sluice 
was  not  changed. 

TABLE  XXV. 

Lengths  and  Grades  of  the  principal  Tunnels  in  the  Mining 
District  of  Smartsville^   Yuba  County,  California. 


Average  Grade  of 

Tunnel. 

Name  of  Tunnel. 

Locality. 

Length  of 

Tunnel. 

Inches  per  Sluice  Box. 

Feet 
per  100. 

Feet. 

Babb 

Timbuctoo 

1,200 

51^  in.  to   12  ft. 

3.80 

Pactolus 

"           ..... 

1,700 

6         "    to    12    " 

4.16 

Rose's  Bar 

<< 

1,600 

6         "    to    12    " 

4.16 

Blue  Gravel. . . . 

Sucker  Flat 

i.roo 

61^   "   to   12   " 

4.50 

Pittsburg 

"     

.     900 

6        "   to   12    " 

4.16 

Blue  Point...    . 

"       "     

2.250 

6       "   to   12   •' 

4.16 

Enterprise 

"       "      

1,200 

6        "    to    12    " 

4.16 

Deer  Creek 

Moone}''s  Flat. . . 

2,200 

5        "    to   12    " 

3-40 

TUNNELS    AND    SLUICES. 


233 


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234 


TUNNELS   AND    SLUICES. 


TABLE    XXVI. 

Lengths,  Grades,  and  Cost  of  important  Tunnels  in  Nevada  County* 


Name  of  Mine  or 
Tunnel. 

Locality. 

'o_4 

|3 

Average  Grade. 

Cost. 

Per  Sluice  Box. 

Per 
Cent. 

Boston 

North  Bloomfield  . 

Farrell 

English 

American 

Woolsey's  Flat 

Humbug  Caiion 

Columbia  Hill 

Badger  Hill 

Below  San  Juan. . . . 
Swcetland 

Feet. 
1, 600 

9,2oot 
2,200 

2,000+ 

5,000+ 

2,300 

4,400+ 
5,048+ 

loYi  in.  to  12  ft. 
6^    "   to  12   " 

6  "   to  14   " 
12       "   to  14   " 
10^    "   to  14   " 

7  "  to  14   " 

8  "   to  14   " 

9  "   to  14   " 
8       "  to  14   " 

7K 
4K 

$40,000 
528,000+t 

160,000+ 
92,000+ 
90,000 
75, 000+ 

190,000+ 

Bed-rock 

French  Corral.    ... 

Below  Sweetland. . . 
French  Corral 

*  Originally  extracted  from  J.  D.  Hague's  Report  on  the  Eureka  Lake  and  Yuba  Canal  Co, 
+  All  figures  marked  thus  are  corrections  of  the  original.         t  With  eight  auxiliary  shafts. 


TABLE    XXVI IL 

Cost  of  Construction  of  Tunnel  and  Sluices  at  Manzanita  Mine. 


Expenses. 


Manzanita  Tun- 
nel. 


Manzanita  Shaft. 


Manzanita  Tail 
Sluice. 


Total. 


Labor,  etc. : 

Sup't  and  Accoun-  I 

tant f 

Office  expenses 

Travel  of  Sup't 

Hauling 

Miners  and  laborers.. 

Supplies  and  Materials; 

Explosives 

Lumber 

Lights 

Tools  and  miscel-  I 
laneous  supplies,  f 

Steel 

Charcoal 

1  ron 

Nails 

Blocks  for   sluice... 

Machinery  : 

Pipes,  shafting,  etc.. 
Water-power 

Legal  Expenses : 

Counsel  fees,  etc. . . , 
Taxes : 

Taxes  before  com-  l_ 
pletion ) 


$1,400  20 


70  24 

73  69 

iig  II 

19,459  24, 


$21,122  48 


1,997  22 
588  22 
345  55 
211  27 

239  60 

603  65 

50  00 


$1,400  20 

70  24 

73  68 

167  66 

1,777  99 

$13,489  77 

809  55 

"4  35 
92  25 

407  92 

79  61 
230  02 


203  79 
65  00 


268  79 


163  79 
772  43* 

1,267  6t 


$25,599  51 


936  22 


1,417  61 


$17,577  30 


$4  00 

8,983  67 
$8,987  67 

276  35 
6,134  67 


70  00 

10  00 
20  00 

265  31 

614  51 

1,098  43 


8,489  27 


$17,476  94  $60,653  75 


*  10,905  ten-hour  inches. 

Note. — The  item  $25,599  5'  shows  the  cost  of  driving  the  Manzanita  Tunnel  from  a  point 


TUNNELS   AND    SLUICES.  235 

756  feet  from  its  mouth  to  a  point  of  junction  with  the  heading  from  the  shaft,  a  distance  of 
851  feet;  cost  $30  08  per  linear  foot.  The  amount  $17,557  30  is  the  cost  of  sinking  the  shaft 
123  feet  and  driving  a  heading  from  it  93  feet  to  connect  with  the  lower  (tunnel)  heading  ; 
cost  $81  38  per  linear  foot.  The  amount  for  tunnel  and  shaft  ($43,176  81)  is  the  cost  of  the 
entire  tunnel  to  the  Milton  Company.  Previous,  however,  to  the  formation  of  this  company 
the  tunnel  had  been  driven  in  756  feet  at  a  cost  of  about  $25  per  foot,  or,  say,  $19,000;  adding 
this  $19,000  to  the  $43,176  81  expended  by  the  Milton  Company  gives  $62,176  8x  as  the  total 
cost  of  tunnel  and  shaft,  or  nearly  $35  per  linear  foot.  The  third  item  of  $17,476  94  repre- 
sents the  cost  of  construction  of  a  tail  sluice,  4,774  feet  long,  from  the  mouth  of  the  tunnel  to 
the  Yuba  River,  7  large  undercurrents  of  the  most  approved  pattern,  and  the  labor  of  putting 
a  flume  in  the  tunnel  1,700  feet  long.  The  three  accounts  summing  $60,653  75  +  $i9iOoo 
(amount  expended  on  tunnel  before  organization  of  the  company),  say  $80,000,  represents 
the  entire  cost  of  tunnel  and  sluices  ready  for  washing.     Size  of  tunnel,  8'  X  8'. 


CHAPTER   XV. 

TAILINGS  AND    DUMP. 

Tailings. — The  refuse  material  thrown  aside  in 
quartz,  drift,  hydraulic,  or  other  mines,  after  the  extrac- 
tion of  the  precious  metal,  is  called  "  tailings."  The  tail- 
ings from  hydraulic  mines  are  called  "  debris  "  also. 

The  number  of  cubic  yards  of  debris  from  the  various 
gravel  mines  discharged  m  1 880-1  into  the  streams  and 
valleys  of  California,  between  Chico  Creek  on  the  north 
and  the  Merced  River  on  the  south,  has  been  estimated  at 
about  46,000,000.  To  this  amount,  according  to  Professor 
Price,  there  should  be  added  1,000,000  cubic  yards  from 
the  tailings  from  the  working  of  1,500,000  tons  of  quartz 
by  12,546  stamps  in  mills. 

Composition  of  Tailings. — The  tailings  from  mills 
consist  of  pulverized  quartz  particles.  The  refuse  from 
gravel-washing  is  of  all  forms  and  dimensions,  and  is  com- 
posed of  the  most  diversified  materials.  The  light  particles 
of  soil,  loam,  and  sand  are  easily  carried  forward  by  run- 
ning water,  while  the  rocks  and  boulders,  though  readily 
transported  through  sluices,  lodge  and  distribute  them- 
selves, when  discharged  therefrom,  in  the  creeks  and 
streams  in  accordance  with  their  size,  shape,  and  specific 
gravity,  and  for  their  further  removal  the  agencies  of  time 
and  flood  are  necessary. 

Cemented  material  and  pipe-clay  are  more  or  less 
disintegrated  and  ground  down  in  the  process  of  sluic- 
ing. When  subjected  to  the  action  of  running  water 
further  pulverization  and  disintegration  ensue,  the  ac- 
tual amount  of  which  is  unknown. 

Wear  in  Running  Water.— The  weanng  down  of 

236 


TAILINGS   AND    DUMP.  237 

solid  cobbles  and  boulders  by  running  water  after  lodg- 
ment in  the  beds  of  large  streams,  at  a  distance  from  the 
mine,  is  not  great.  When  these  materials  ai'e  carried 
further  forward  by  floods  or  torrents  they  move  along 
the  bottom  until  they  find  permanent  lodgment,  conse- 
quent upon  a  decrease  in  the  grade  of  the  bed  of  the 
stream  or  from  some  other  cause.  In  water  the  weight 
of  rocks  is  materially  lessened,  and  the  friction  which 
would  be  due  to  their  weight  is  correspondingly  de- 
creased. 

The  constant  collision  and  rubbing  of  the  harder  rocks 
against  each  other  smooths  and  polishes  them,  somewhat 
changes  their  form  and  lessens  their  surface,  and,  to  a 
certain  extent,  reduces  them  to  fine  powder  but  not  to 
sand.  Experiments  made  to  ascertain  the  wear  due  to 
erosion  of  solid  materials  transported  b}-  rivers  or  streams 
tend  to  establish  the  fact  that  no  perceptible  deposit  can 
be  attributed  to  such  cause,  as  the  sediment  from  such 
wear  is  found  to  be  a  verv  fine  powder,  which  immedi- 
ately passes  off  in  suspension. 

The  distribution  of  gi'avels  along  the  course  of  any 
stream  will  be  found  to  be  in  accordance  with  their  size, 
form  and  specific  gravit}',  and  distance  from  the  source. 
Thus  the  material  composing  the  bed  of  a  stream,  which 
may  at  its  source  consist  entirely  of  large  boulders  and 
cobbles,  will  become  finer  and  liner  through  the  succes- 
sive stages  of  gravel,  pebbles,  and  sand,  until  it  is  finally 
discharged  as  muddy  water  into  the  ocean. 

Effects  of  Hydraulic  Debris. — The  working  of 
hydraulic  mines  in  California  has  here  and  there  given 
rise  to  disputes  with  farmers.  These  disputes  have,  un- 
fortunately, been  carried  into  the  domain  of  local  politics, 
and  thereby  not  only  brought  into  undue  prominence,  but 
also  exaggerated,  and  an  equitable  settlement  prevented. 
Meantime  manipulators  have  taken  advantage  of  the  situ- 
ation to  the  detriment  of  both  the  farming  and  the  mining 
interests. 


238  TAILINGS   AND    DUMP. 

The  navigable  waters  affected  by  the  mines  are  the 
bays  of  Suisun  and  San  Pablo  and  the  Sacramento,  San 
Joaquin,  and  Feather  rivers.  The  smaller  and  non-navi- 
gable streams  which  receive  more  or  less  of  the  sands  are 
(besides  the  Trinity  and  Klamath  rivers,  where  so  little 
washing  is  done  that  they  need  not  be  considered):  the 
American  Ctributary  of  the  Sacramento)  in  the  north  ; 
and  the  Merced,  the  Tuolumne,  the  Stanislaus,  the  Cala- 
veras, the  Mokelumne,  and  the  Cosumnes  (tributaries  of 
the  San  Joaquin)  in  the  south.  The  quantity  of  debris 
which  has  been  washed  into  these  streams  is  unknown,  and 
data  based  on  reconstructed  topography  in  the  mining 
regions  are,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  simply  guesses. 
The  only  available  method  of  estimating  with  any  ap- 
proach to  accuracy  the  amounts  of  material  mined  seems 
to  be  that  of  taking  the  water  used  and  averaging  the 
duties  of  the  inch,  as  surveys  of  the  washings  are  kept 
up  only  in  exceptional  cases. 

The  inch  differs  as  much  as  20  per  cent.,  the  nature  of 
the  ground  mined  continually  changes,  and  the  character 
of  the  sluices  varies  not  only  in  every  district  but  in  almost 
every  claim.  These  estimates,  therefore,  must  be  consid- 
ered as  the  mean  of  many  conjectures.  It  can  be  safely 
stated  that  onl}'^  in  a  few  instances  do  any  of  the  ditches 
discharge  the  quantity  of  water  which  they  are  rated 
to  deliver  according  to  official  statements  or  in  the  as- 
sessors' returns,  from  which  sources  chiefly  the  cubic 
yards  mined  have  been  estimated. 

The  following  tables,  XXIX.  and  XXX.,  are  based  on 
this  method.  Table  XXIX.  is  from  William  Hammond 
Hall,  State  Engineer,  Report  of  1880,  part  iii.  p.  24. 
Table  XXX.  is  from  Lieutenant-Colonel  G.  H.  Mendell's 
Report  upon  Mining  Debris  in  California  Rivers,  1882^ 
p.  15: 


TAILINGS   AND   DUMP.  239 

TABLE   XXIX.  TABLE    XXX. 

Season  1878-79,  Season  1879-80. 

Cubic  Yards.  Cubic  Yards. 

Table  Mountain  Creek 3,55f>,ooo  2,919,375 

Butte  Creek 84,000 

Feather  River 12,687,500  4,407,770 

Yuba  River 22,326,500  19,103,598 

Bear  River 5,550,000  3,351,246 

Dry  Creek,  No.  2 6So,ooo  132,687 

American  River 8,604,000  8,615,250 

Total 53.404,000*  38,613,926! 

In  the  region  south  of  the  American  River  Mendell's 
Report  shows  the  discharge  of  taihngs  to  be  7,414,465 
cubic  yards. 

The  differences  in  the  above  tabulated  estimates,  which 
were  undoubtedlv  prepared  with  care,  show  how  difficult 
it  is  to  arrive  at  exact  data.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  the 
details  on  which  the  calculations  are  made  are  not  given, 
it  is  impossible  to  criticise  with  lairness.  It  would  ap- 
pear that  the  duty  of  the  inch  is  rather  too  large.:]: 

By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  material  washed  remains 
comparatively  near  the  ends  of  the  sluices  in  the  canons 
until  removed  b}'  heavy  freshets.  "  In  the  Polar  Star  and 
Southern  Cross  mines,  at  Dutch  Flat,  I  have  estimated 
that  nearly  50  per  cent,  of  the  material  mined  is  of  a  cha- 
racter which  need  never  be  carried  a  nnle  below  the 
dumps  ;  it  is  of  heavy  rock  and  cobble-stones,  and  prob- 
ably not  over  45  per  cent,  of  the  whole  need  ever  be- 
come sandy  and  sedimentary  in  character  if  reservoired 
before  being  transported  very  far ;  so  that  all  but  about 
1 5  per  cent,  could  be  held  readily  behind  dams  and  other 
obstructions  in  the  canons."  § 

*  The  State  Engineer's  estimate  of  quantities  washed  is  based  upon  the  returns  of  the 
amount  of  water  used,  made  by  mining  superintendents  or  secretaries,  on  blank  forms  fur- 
nished from  the  State  Engineer's  office. 

t  Colonel  Mendell's  estimate  is  based  upon  returns  of  water  used  in  mining,  made  by 
the  county  assessors  to  the  State  Engineer,  as  provided  by  law. 

i  The  average  duty  of  the  inch  for  the  region  draining  into  the  Sacramento  Valley  is  (ac- 
cording to  the  tables)  3.6  cubic  yards,  and  for  the  region  south  of  the  .'American  River  2.2 
cubic  yards.     The  latter  is  certainly,  and  the  former  probably,  too  great. 

§  Report  of  the  State  Engineer,  1880,  p.  23. 


240  TAILINGS   AND   DUMP. 

The  coarse  detritus  which  gets  into  the  streams  and 
is  subjected  to  the  action  of  floods  is  moved  along-  when 
the  grades  are  over  40  feet  to  the  mile,  and  is  deposited 
mostly  when  the  grade  is  lessened  to  between  30  and  20 
feet.  "  The  sands  predominate  greatly  "  when  the  grade 
is  reduced  to  10  feet  and  less.* 

The  hnest  and  lightest  material  is  held  in  suspension 
until  the  velocity  of  the  water  carrying  it  is  greatly  re- 
duced. The  amount  of  material  suspended  in  the  Cali- 
fornia rivers  has  been  estimated  from  tests  made  of  these 
waters,  but  these  tests  have  not  been  continued  for  a 
sufficient  length  of  time  to  afford  any  reliable  results. 

The  deposition  of  this  material  on  lands  overflowed 
during  high  water  was  one  of  the  original  causes  of  the 
disputes  mentioned  above. 

Up  to  the  year  1880,  the  total  area  in  the  Sacramento 
Basni  thus  affected  is  estimated  by  the  State  Engineer 
at  43,546  acres,  a  large  portion  of  which  was  of  little 
value  and  had  always  been  subject  to  overflow. 

The  catchment  area  on  the  east  side  of  the  Sacra- 
mento Valley  is  very  large,  and  the  descent  from  the 
high  sierra  to  the  valley  is  very  abrupt  and  precipitous. 
During  the  stormy  seasons  immense  quantities  of  water, 
caused  by  rainfall  and  melting  snows,  are  rapidly  dis- 
charged into  the  lowlands,  where  the  river  channels, 
having  but  small  areas  f  and  light  grades,  are  unable  to 
carry  them  off,  and  floods  invariably  follow. 

The  reservoirs  which  have  been  constructed  by  the 
hydraulic  mining  companies  in  the  mountains  partially 
mitigate  the  evils  arising  from  this   source. 

THE    DUMP. 

It  is  impossible  to  la}'  too  much  stress  on  the  import- 
ance of  the  dump,  as  without  it  hydraulic  mining  could 
not  be  carried  on.     Where  thousands  of  cubic  yards  of 

*  Report  of  I,ieutenant-Colnnel  Mendell,  pp    33  and  34. 
T  See  vol.  ii.  p.  7   Trans.  ']  ech.  Soc.  of  the  Pacific  Coast. 


TAILINC;S    AND    DUMP.  24I 

alluvions  are  being  washed  daily  fnjm  their  position, 
places  must  be  provided  at  lower  elevations  where  the 
gravel  can  be  deposited.  A  much  larger  superficial  area 
is  usually  required  for  this  than  was  primarily  occupied 
by  the  material  removed,  as  the  dumps  seldom  have  the 
depths  of  the  original  deposits. 

Working  on  diflferent  Bed-rock  Levels  with 
same  Dump.  —  It  sometimes  happens  in  adjacent  claims 
with  small  dump-room  that  the  bed-rock  of  one  is  lower 
than  the  other.  Where  this  occurs  the  claim  with  the 
highest  bed-rock  should  be  the  last  run  off. 

An  illustration  of  this  was  afforded  at  Patricksville,  in 
Stanislaus  County,  where  three  claims  were  worked,  one 
tailing  over  the  other.  During  the  years  1876  and  1877 
the  lowest  claim,  called  the  "Chesnau,"  was  closed  each 
fall,  the  dump  giving  out,  while  the  upper  ones  continued 
work.  With  the  return  of  spring  freshets  the  canon  was 
cleared  of  the  debris,  and  washing  was  regularly  resumed 
in  the  Chesnau,  continuing  as  long  as  the  dump  lasted. 
The  highest  claim  was  closed  while  the  Chesnau  was 
working,  to  avoid  the  too  rapid  filling-up  of  the  creek. 
If  both  upper  claims  had  been  worked  at  the  same  time 
the  Chesnau  would  soon  have  been  closed. 

Tailing-  into  Streams. — The  want  of  dump  is  reme- 
died only  in  exceptional  cases  by  discharging  into  a  cur- 
rent or  mountain  torrent.  This  occurs  where  the  gold 
placers  are  on  the  borders  of  large,  rapid,  and  well  con- 
fined streams  ;  but  in  the  mountains,  where  the  gold-bear- 
ing deposits  are  found,  the  rivers  are  narrow  and  shallow,, 
only  running  water  in  quantity  during  the  winter  and 
early  spring. 

Experience  at  La  Grange,  on  tlie  Tuolumne. — 
Some  of  the  annovances  and  difficulties  arising  from  tail- 
ing into  a  stream  can  be  seen  on  the  Tuolumne  River  be- 
low La  Grange.  The  river,  a  large  mountain  stream 
which  runs  over  a  hard  slate  bottom,  has  for  17  miles 
above  the  town  a  fall  approximating  18  feet  to  the  mile. 


242  TAILINGS   AND    DUMP. 

and  is  well  confined  by  abrupt  banks.  Opposite  the  old 
French  Hill  dump  the  river  is  500  feet  wide,  and  at  La 
Grange,  from  which  place  to  its  mouth  the  grade  is  only 
a  few  feet  to  the  mile,  its  width  is  525  feet.  Three  hun- 
dred yards  below  the  town,  opposite  the  Light  claim,  it 
widens  to  750  feet.  Down  the  stream  from  this  point  the 
hills  recede  for  the  succeeding  three  or  four  miles,  but 
subsequently  form  prominent  banks  to  the  river.  During 
high  water,  opposite  the  Light  claim,  at  its  greatest 
width,  its  average  depth  was  10  feet,  the  centre  of  the 
channel  being  14  feet  deep.  When  the  La  Grange  Com- 
pany commenced  work,  in  1872,  the  bottom  of  the  chan- 
nel was  a  few  feet  deeper. 

The  Light  claim  was  worked  in  1873,  and  up  to  June 
23,  1874,  had  discharged  720,086  cubic  yards  of  gravel 
into  the  stream.  During  the  same  period  975,064  cubic 
yards  were  dumped  into  the  river  from  the  Kelly  and 
French  Hill  properties.  The  results  at  the  expiration  of 
21  months  were,  that  the  channel  opposite  the  Light 
claim  was  filled  up,  the  sluices  were  run  out  of  grade, 
the  river  bed  was  shoaled  on  all  sides,  the  water  of  a 
formerly  rapid  stream  straggled  over  the  accumulated 
debris  with  a  barely  perceptible  motion,  and  it  is  hardly 
necessary  to  add  that  the  claim  was  closed. 

The  spring  freshets  of  1875-76  were  unusually  severe, 
clearing  the  river  at  the  claim  for  its  entire  width  and 
leaving  a  dump  of  over  1 1  feet  along  its  west  bank.  In 
the  spring  work  was  resumed,  and  48,280  cubic  yards 
were  moved  in  the  Light  claim  and  212,346  cubic  yards 
from  French  Hill,  which  was  a  quarter  of  a  mile  up- 
stream. By  September  the  river  was  filled  up  nearly  its 
entire  width  to  the  height  of  the  sluices,  and  the  water 
was  confined  to  a  strip  30  feet  wide,  discharging  i  foot 
deep  over  a  bar. 

Exceptional  Cases. — Where  a  small  amount  of  tail- 
ings is  discharged  into  narrow  and  steep  canons,  winter 
rains  and  spring  freshets  suffice  to  clean  them  out ;  but 


TAILINGS   AND   DUMP.  243 

where  the  quantity  is  large,  in  spite  of  the  water  the  ra- 
vines fill  up  gradually,  and  hydraulic  mining  in  these 
localities  ultimately  ceases.  It  occasionally  happens  that 
the  want  of  dump-room  is  obviated  by  a  tunnel,  by  means 
of  which  the  tailings  are  conveyed  into  large  and  pre- 
cipitous ravines,  there  to  await  the  action  of  time  and 
water  for  their  further  removal. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

WASHING,  OR  HYDRAULICKING. 

Charging  the  Slviices. — The  tunnel  and  sluices  hav- 
ing been  completed,  water  is  turned  into  the  pipes  and 
washing  commences.  The  sluices  are  run  half  a  day  in 
order  to  pack  them.  The  water  is  then  shut  off  and  a 
charge  of  quicksilver  is  put  into  the  upper  200  or  300 
feet  of  sluices,  a  small  quantity  being  distributed  along  the 
entire  line  except  the  kist  400  feet.  In  a  6-foot  sluice  the 
first  charge  will  be  about  3  flasks.  The  undercurrents  are 
charged  at  the  same  time  and  a  little  quicksilver  put  into 
the  tail  sluice.  Quicksilver  is  added  daily  during  the  run, 
in  gradually  lessening  quantities,  the  object  being  to  keep 
the  mercury  uncovered  and  clean  at  the  top  of  the  riffles  ; 
and  therefore  the  charge  is  regulated  by  the  amount  ex- 
posed to  view.  At  the  North  Bloomtield  Mine,  where  the 
main  sluice  is  cleaned  up  nearly  ever}^  12  days,  the  amount 
of  quicksilver  used  in  a  run  varies  from  14  to  18  flasks.  A 
24-foot  undercurrent  will  require  a  charge  of  from  80  to  88 
pounds  of  quicksilver. 

In  charging  the  riffles  all  splashing  of  the  quicksilver 
should  be  avoided.  When  it  is  sprinkled  into  the  sluice 
(a  practice  to  be  condemned)  it  divides  itself  into  minute 
particles,  the  bulk  of  which  is  easily  carried  off  bv  the 
swift  stream,  while  the  lighter  portions  will  float  even  in 
the  clear  water.  The  buoyancy  of  these  small  particles 
is  very  considerable. 

Top  water  from  mining  sluices  often  vields  minute 
globules  of  quicksilver,  and  float  quicksilver  containing 
gold  particles  (microscopic)  has  been  taken  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  twenty  miles  from  where  the  amalgam 


WASHING,    OK    HYDRAULICKIXG.  245 

entered  the  stream.  In  one  case  floatinj^  amalgam  was 
observed  on  the  North  Fork  of  the  Yuba  River  four  miles 
below  where  the  tailings  were  dumped.  A  flume  (con- 
veying water  to  a  pump)  was  set  above  the  bottom  of  the 
stream,  drawing  direct  without  any  dam.  An  examina- 
tion of  the  flume  subsequent  to  its  removal  revealed  the 
presence  of  about  one  ounce  of  gold  amalgam,  collected 
at  the  junction  of  the  boxes. 

Comuiencing"  Work. — The  first  work  is  started 
near  the  head  of  the  sluice  and  the  mine  opened  from 
that  point.  As  the  banks  are  washed  away  the  bed-rock 
cuts  are  driven  towards  the  face  of  the  work  and  the 
sluices  are  advanced.     (For  blasting  see  Chapter  XII.) 

Caviug  Banks. — In  order  to  cave  a  bank  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  use  two  pipes  which  throw  streams  from  op- 
posite sides  at  an  obtuse  angle  with  one  another,  forming 
a  cross-tire,  against  the  lower  part  of  the  bank.  This 
cross-fire  was  supposed  to  be  particularly  efficient,  but 
in  many  cases  where  large  quantities  of  water  and  great 
pressures  (2,500  to  3,000  inches  with  heads  of  350  to 
450  feet)  are  employed  better  results  have  been  claimed 
from  utilizing  water  in  a  single  stream  than  from  its  sub- 
division through  two  (or  more)  pipes.  Any  surplus  water 
may  be  allowed  to  run  over  the  banks,  but  such  surplus 
should  be  avoided  as  far  as  possible  and  all  the  water 
utilized  through  the    nozzles. 

When  washing  with  two  pipes,  and  the  dirt  caves 
readily,  one  pipe  should  be  employed  to  do  the  cutting 
while  with  the  other  the  falling  gravel  is  washed  into  the 
ground  sluices. 

The  face  of  the  bank  should  be  kept  square.  Advan- 
tage should  be  taken  of  such  corners  as  are  left,  and,  under 
all  circumstances,  avoid  working  into  what  is  called  a 
"  horseshoe  "  form.  When  a  cut  is  rapidly  pushed  ahead 
and  the  work  is  not  squared,  the  men  at  the  pipes  become 
encircled  by  high  banks,  washing  can  no  longer  be  ad- 
vantageously prosecuted,  and  the  lives  of  the  miners  are 


246  WASHING,    OR    HYDRAULICKING. 

imperiled.  The  majority  of  accidents  arising  from  caves 
have  been  caused  by  this  style  of  work. 

High  Banks. — Where  the  banks  exceed  1 50  feet  in 
height  it  is  advisable  to  wash  the  deposit  in  two  benches. 
At  Malakoff  and  Smartsville  single  benches  have  been  used 
to  the  limit  of  250  feet,  and  above  this  double  benches. 

When  the  man  at  the  pipe  sees  that  the  bank  is  about 
to  cave  the  water  should  be  immediatel}^  turned  away 
from  the  falling  masses  ;  if  the  cave  falls  upon  the  water 
in  the  ground  cut,  a  rush  of  debris  ensues,  and  in  many 
instances  the  men  at  the  pipe  have  to  i-un  for  their  lives. 
Such  occurrences,  arising  either  from  carelessness  or  ac- 
cident, cause  a  loss  of  time  and  frequently  entail  damage 
to  the  pipe  and  machines.  Caves,  when  practicable,  are 
generally  made  towards  evening,  the  night  shift  running 
them  off. 

Light. ^Locomotive  reflectors  or  fires  of  pitch-wood 
are  used  to  illuminate  the  banks  during  the  night.  In 
some  large  claims  electric  lights  have  been  substituted. 
No  doubt  the  latter  would  be  more  generally  used  were 
it  not  for  the  cost  attendant  on  their  introduction. 

Electric  Light. — The  electric-light  machine  used  in 
illuminating  the  North  Bloomfield  mine  is  of  the  Brush 
pattern  and  nominally  of  12,000  candle-power.  To  run  it 
requires  four  horse-power,  supplied  through  a  hurdy- 
gurdy  wheel.     The  light  is  used  in  two  lamps. 

The  machine,  lamps,  wire,  and  connections  cost  two 
thousand  dollars  set  up.  It  has  been  in  almost  constant 
use  for  two  and  a  half  years,  running  from  eight  to  twelve 
hours  each  night. 

Its  running  cost  per  night  is : 

Six  carbons,  %  inch  by  12  inches. 
Brushes  and  segments,         .         .         , 

Oil,  say, 

Attendance,  half  one  man's  time, 
Power,  10  inches  water,  at  2.27  cts.,  say, 


Total  cost  per  night. 


$0 

50 

0 

12 

0 

03 

I 

50 

0 

23 

$2    38 


WASHING,    OR    HVDRAU LICKING,  247 

The  cost  of  the  pitch-wood  bonfires  previously  used 
was  eight  dollars  per  night,  and  these  gave  an  illumina- 
tion very  inferior  to  that  of  the  electric  light. 

The  lamps  are  placed  in  the  open,  where  they  are 
subjected  to  the  severest  winter  storms  without  injuri- 
ous effect  other  than  the  increased  consumption  of  car- 
bons. 

Continuous  Work. — The  washing  should  be  con- 
tinuous and  no  water  be  allowed  to  run  to  waste.  It  is 
therefore  requisite  to  have  several  faces  or  openings,  so 
that  the  water  can  be  used  from  time  to  time  on  them 
whilst  the  cuts  are  being  advanced  and  the  sluices  length- 
ened. These  cuts,  or  "  ground  sluices,"  as  they  are  called, 
are  trenches  made  in  the  bed-rock  towards  the  face  of 
the  bank  washed,  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  the  water 
and  material  and  conveying  them  to  the  sluices.  Some- 
times these  cuts  are  very  deep,  say  from  60  to  70  feet,  and 
occasionallv  the  expense  of  making  them  forms  a  large 
item. 

When  a  claim  is  running  the  sluices  are  always  guard- 
ed. As  a  protection  against  theft,  where  claims  are  worked 
intermittently,  the  sluices  are  run  fidl  of  gravel  before 
turning  off  the  water. 

Cleauing-  up. — The  length  of  "  runs  "  is  dependent 
upon  many  circumstances,  but  chiefly  upon  the  wear  of  the 
pavement.  Some  claims  are  cleaned  up  every  twenty  days, 
others  are  run  two  or  three  months,  whilst  a  few,  where 
the  water  season  is  short,  are  cleaned  up  only  every  season. 
All  pavements  should  be  cleaned  up  as  soon  as  they  begin 
to  wear  in  grooves.  Where  a  large  quantity  of  water  is 
used,  and  a  relatively  large  amount  of  ground  washed,  it 
is  considered  advisable  to  clean  up  the  first  1,000  or  1,800 
feet  of  sluices  (which  are  paved  with  blocks)  every  two 
weeks.  With  a  gang  of  miners  this  work  is  done  ex- 
peditiously, not  occupying  over  one  half-day.  The  tail 
sluices  are  cleaned  up  onh^  once  a  year.  The  undercur- 
rents should  be  cleaned  up  whenever  quicksilver  is  found 


248  WASHING,    OR    IIVDRAULICKING. 

spread  over  their  lower  riffles,  with  tendency  to  discharge 
over  their  ends. 

When  it  is  decided  to  "  clean  up,"  the  bed-rock  and 
cuts  are  piped  clean.  No  material  is  turned  into  the 
sluices,  clear  water  alone  being-  run  until  the  sluices  are 
free  of  dirt. 

When  thus  prepared  only  a  small  head  of  water,  such 
as  men  can  conveniently  work  in,  is  turned  through  the 
sluice,  and  the  blocks  are  taken  out  by  means  of  crow- 
bars, washed  to  free  them  from  amalgam,  and  laid  at  the 
side  of  the  sluice.  This  is  done  in  sections  approximating 
100  feet.  Between  each  section  one  row  ot  blocks  is  left 
in  the  sluice.  These  rows  serve  as  riffles  to  pixvent  the 
gold  and  quicksilver  from  passing  down  the  sluice.  After 
the  first  section  of  blocks  is  taken  up  men  follow  the 
gravel  and  dirt  as  these  are  slowly  washed  down  the 
sluices,  and  pick  up  the  quicksilver  and  amalgam  with 
iron  scoops,  with  which  they  are  put  into  sheet-iron 
buckets. 

As  each  riffle  is  reached  the  amalgam  and  quicksilver 
are  collected,  the  block  riffles  removed,  and  the  residue  is 
washed  down  to  the  next  riffle,  and  so  on  down  the  en- 
tire line  of  sluice.  When  this  operation  is  completed  the 
water  is  turned  off  and  the  workmen  attend  to  the  nail- 
holes  and  cracks  in  the  sluices,  "creviceing"  with  silver 
spoons  to  obtain  the  amalgam  contained  in  them.  After 
this  the  side-lagging  is  overhauled  and  the  blocks  are  re- 
placed. Where  the  sluices  are  of  great  length  the  lower 
portions  are  usually  lined  with  heavy  rock,  which  can  be 
used  for  longer  periods  without  cleaning  up. 

It  is  customary  in  mines  which  have  very  long  sluices, 
and  which  are  run  at  night,  to  clean  up  during  the  day  as 
long  a  section  as  can  be  cleaned  and  put  in  order  for  fur- 
ther work,  and  to  resume  washing  at  night,  until  the  whole 
line  is  cleaned  up.  At  the  end  of  the  water  season  the  en- 
tire works  are  cleaned  up  and  put  in  order  for  the  next 
season's  run. 


WASHING,    Or<    HVDRAULICKIXG.  249 

Treating  the  Ainalj^aiii. — The  quicksilver  and 
amalgam  obtained  is  well  stirred  in  buckets,  and  the 
coarse  sand,  nails,  and  other  foreign  substances  which 
float  on  the  surface  are  skimmed  off.  This  residue  (which 
holds  considerable  amalgam)  is  concentrated  by  washing 
in  pans  or  rockers,  and  the  concentrations  ground  in  iron 
mortars  and  treated  with  more  quicksilver.  Any  base 
material  which  floats  on  the  surface  of  the  bath  is  melted 
by  itself  to  a  base  bullion.  The  remainder  is  added  to  the 
fine  amalgam.  The  amalgam  is  strained  from  the  quick- 
silver through  drilling,  and  the  dry  amalgam  is  retorted 
in  iron  retorts. 

Retorting. — Where  the  amount  of  amalgam  obtained 
is  small  the  hand  retort  is  used,  but  at  large  gravel-mines 
the  cast-iron  retorts  are  made  stationary,  similar  to  those 
used  at  gold  and  silver  quartz  mills,  onl}-  that  they  are 
smaller.  Where  large  quantities  of  amalgam  are  retort- 
ed and  the  furnaces  when  hred  are  left  unattended,  as  is 
frequentlv  the  case,  the  retort,  which  is  set  immediately 
above  the  fire,  becomes  overheated.  The  weight  of  the 
metal  which  it  contains  then  causes  the  retort  to  "  belly," 
which  ruins  it.  To  overcome  this  difficulty  the  retort 
should  be  set  with  supports  and  arranged  with  the  fire  to 
one  side,  that  the  heat  may  be  evenly  distributed  over  it. 
Retorts  thus  set  are  found  to  work  well  in  practice.  (See 
Figs.  70,  71.) 

Before  the  amalgam  is  put  in  the  retort  the  interior  is 
coated  with  a  thin  wash  of  clay,  which  prevents  the  amal- 
gam adhering  to  the  iron. 

The  amalgam  should  be  carefuUv  introduced  and 
evenly  spread.  The  iron  pipe  which  connects  the  back 
end  of  the  retort  with  the  condenser  must  be  clear  of  all 
■obstructions,  and  vmder  no  circumstances  should  the 
amalgam  be  spread  so  that  the  pipe  can  possibly  become 
choked,  as  in  that  case  an  explosion  would  probablv  ensue. 

To  avoid  any  danger  arising  from  this  source,  after 
the  cover  has  been   put  on,  luted   with  either  clay  or  a 


250 


WASHING,    OR    HVDRAULICKING. 


at 
O 

H 
b] 


WASHING,    OR   HYDRAULICKING.  25  I 

mixture  of  clay  and  wood-ashes,  and  securely  clamped^ 
the  fire  is  lighted  and  the  heat  gradually  raised,  a  dark- 
red  heat  being  all  that  is  necessary  to  thoroughly  volatil- 
ize the  quicksilver.  Towards  the  end  of  the  operation  the 
heat  is  raised  to  a  cherry-red  ccjlor,  at  which  it  is  kept 
until  distillation  ceases.  The  retort  is  allowed  to  gradu- 
ally cool,  and  when  cold  is  opened. 

During  the  operation  the  condensing-coil  at  the  back 
of  the  retort  should  be  kept  cool  by  a  continuous  supply 
of  fresh  water  entering  from  the  lower  end  of  the  box 
which  contains  it,  whilst  the  discharge  of  warm  water  is 
effected  above. 

The  retorted  bullion  is  cut  or  broken  in  pieces  and 
melted  in  a  well-annealed  black-lead  crucible,  and  the  gold 
oast  into  bars. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

THE  DISTRIBUTION    OF   GOLD   IN   SLUICES. 

In  cleaning  up  sluices  the  largest  portion  (approximat- 
ing 80  per  cent.)  of  the  gold  caught  is  found  in  the  first 
200  feet.  The  gross  yield  of  the  Gardner's  Point  claim 
for  the  season  of  1874  was  $63,000  for  100  days'  run.  Of 
this  amount  $54,000  were  obtained  in  the  first  150  feet, 
and  $3,000  were  taken  from  the  undercurrents.  The  re- 
mainder was  found  lower  down  along  the  sluices.  The 
first  undercurrent  was  790  feet  distant  from  the  head  of 
the  sluice,  and  yielded  50  per  cent,  of  the  total  3'ield  of  the 
undercurrents.  The  second  undercurrent  was  78  feet  dis- 
tant from  the  first,  with  a  drop  of  40  feet  between  them, 
and  it  contained  33  per  cent,  of  the  gross  undercurrent 
yield.  The  third  undercurrent  was  91  feet  distant  from 
the  second,  with  a  drop  of  50  feet  between  them.  Its 
yield  was  nearly  $500. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  a  hundred  or  a  hundred 
and  fifty  feet  at  the  head  of  a  sluice  are  covered  with 
gravel  during  the  greater  part  of  a  run.  In  such  cases 
the  gold  is  found  farther  down.  In  the  North  Bloomfield 
tunnel  the  upper  300  feet  of  the  sluice  are  generally  filled 
from  one  to  five  feet  deep  with  gravel,  and  still  this  por- 
tion yields  much  more  amalgam  per  linear  foot  than  the 
succeeding  300  feet  of  sluice.  The  following  data  from 
the  report  of  this  compan}-  for  the  year  ending  October 
31,  1876,  are  worthy  of  note,  as  showing  the  position  of 
the  gold  in  the  sluices  at  "  No.  8  "  claim,  where  some 
700,000  inches  of  water  were  run,  washing  2,919,000  cubic 
yards  of  gravel : 


THE   DISTRIBUTION   OF  GOLD    IN   SLUICES.            253 

Sump $1,510  00  0.80  per  cent,  of  gross  yield. 

Flume  (1,800  ft.) 176,900  73  92.00    " 

Tunnel  below  fiume 7,29000  3.75     " 

Tail  sluice  (300  ft.) 1,80000  0.95     " 

Undercurrents 5,235  00  2.50    " 


$192,735  73         100.00    " 

Mr.  P.  Wright,  assistant  engineer  for  water-supply, 
Beechworth  District,  Australia,  in  giving  his  experience 
on  the  subject  of  the  distribution  of  gold  in  sluices,  says : 
"  With  a  sluice  12  inches  wide,  on  an  incline  of  one  foot 
to  48  feet,  using  600  gallons  per  minute,  I  have  found  95 
per  cent,  of  the  gold  within  three  feet  of  where  the  gravel 
was  filled  into  the  sluice- — where  the  gold  was  lying  on 
a  smooth  board,  and  yet  a  powerful  current  failed  to 
move  it."* 

Distribution  in  Tail  Slui(*es. — The  North  Bloom- 
field  tunnel  (8,000  feet  in  length)  has  1,800  feet  of  sluices, 
paved  with  blocks  at  its  upper  end  ;  but  in  the  succeeding 
6,200  feet  no  sluices  are  used,  the  tailings  being  allowed 
to  run  on  the  bare  bed-nock  (a  tough  slate). 

From  the  rock-cut  at  the  mouth  of  the  tunnel  a  sluice 
paved  with  rocks  receives  the  tailings.  From  here  on 
they  are  carried  through  sluices  and  cuts  and  distributed 
over  undercurrents  which  are  set  on  different  grades, 
paved,  in  some  instances,  with  rocks  and  blocks,  and  oc- 
casionally arranged  with  longitudinal  riffles  covered  with 
strap  iron.  The  grizzlies  used  are  made  of  wrought  iron, 
I  by  4  inches  in  size,  set  on  edge.  The  discharge  from 
the  several  undercurrents  is  taken  up  by  the  main  sluice 
and  subsequently  redischarged  over  the  succeeding  un- 
dercurrent until  the  lowest  sluice  and  undercurrent  final- 
ly discharge  the  tailings  into  the  canon.  From  December 
I,  1876,  to  June  I,  1877,  354.000  24-hour  miner's  inches  of 
water  (2, 230  cubic  feet  each),  conveying  the  tailings,  passed 
through  the  main  sluice  and  tunnel  and  were  discharged 
through  the  tail  or  lower  sluice  and  undercurrents. 

♦  "  The  Gold  Fields  and  Mineral  Districts  of  Victoria,"  R.  Brough  Smythe,  p.  133. 


254 


THE   DISTRIBUTION   OF   GOLD   IN   SLUICES. 


The  annexed  sketch  shows  the  general  arrangement  of 
the  tail  sluices  and  undercurrents,  which  latter  were  sub- 
divided into  compartments,  as  indicated. 


3«ift. 


Fig.  72. 


The  distribution  of  the  gold  along  the  line  of  sluices 
and  in  the  several  undercurrents  was  as  follows  : 

Tail  sluices  from    December  i,   1876,  to  June    i,   1877,  miner's 
inches  of  water,  24  hours  each,  350,000. 

150  feet  at  head,  down  to  No.  i  Undercurrent,  yield $3)  150  C)0 

150  feet,  remainder  of  sluice,  yield 350  00 


Total $3,500  00 

No.  I  Undercurrent — Size,  24  by  36  feet;  grade,  13 
inches  in  12  feet ;  chute,  2  feet  wide  at  opening,  contracted 
to  10  inches;  iron-rail  riffles.  (The  undercurrents  are 
divided  into  four  compartments,  A,  B,  C,  and  D.) 


A         y 

ielded 

1031.^ 

ounces 

amalgam. " 

B 

" 

83% 

" 

" 

C 

" 

463^ 

" 

" 

>  3  clean-ups. 

D 

<< 

31^ 

(( 

" 

Chute 

" 

46M 

(( 

J 

316I4;         "  "         Value,  $1,920. 

No.  2  Undercurrent — Size,  24  by  24  feet;  grade,  12 
inches  in  12  feet;  chute,  upper  end  2}4  feet,  lower  end 
2  feet ;  iron-rail  riffles. 

A        yielded  48^  ounces  amalgam. ' 


p 

3634         " 

c 

2054 

►  2  clean-ups 

D 

233^         " 

Chute 

14            "              "         j 

I43J^         "              "         V 

alue,  $874. 

THE   DISTRIBUTION   OF   GOLD   IX   SLUICES. 


255 


No.  3  Undercurrent — Size,  24  by  36  feet;  grade,  15 
inches  in  12  feet ;  chute,  2>^  feet  upper  end,  2  feet  lower 
end  ;  rock  riffles. 


36ft. 


Tail  Sluices  and  Undercurrents. 


A  yielded 

B 

C 

D 

Chute       " 


5oi.<  ounces  amalgam. 
16 


128^ 


>■  2  clean-ups. 


Value,  $883. 


No.  4  Undercurrent— Size,  20  by  36  feet ;  grade,  12 
inches  in  12  feet  ;  rock  riffles. 

71^  ounces  amalgam.     Value,  $430. 

No.  5  Undercurrent  (constructed  in  March) — 150,000 
miner's  inches  of  water;  size,  24  by  24  feet;  grade,  12 
inches  in  12  feet;  chute,  2}^  feet  upper  end,  contracted 
to  2  feet  lower  end;  riffles  134^  by  4  inch  lumber,  coy. 
ered  with  strap  iron ;  nails  i  inch  apart. 


A  yielded  5       ounces  amalgam 

B  "  81^         " 

C  "  5 

D  "  6}4 


25 


I  clean-up. 
Value,  $150. 


No.  6  Undercurrent — Size,  24  by  36  feet ;  grade,  17 
inches  in  12  feet ;  rock  riffles;  chute,  2^  feet  upper  end, 
2  feet  lower  end  ;   1 50,000  miner's  inches  of  water. 


-D^ 


THE    DISTRIBUTION   OF   GOLD   IN    SLUICES. 


A  yielded  8       ounces  amalgam. 

B  "  5  •' 

C  "  3H        " 

D  "  3  " 

19M        " 


*  I  clean-up. 


Value,  $115. 


The  total  yield  of  the  undercurrents  and  tail  sluices, 
for  the  period  mentioned,  was  $7,872,  while  that  of  the 
claim  was  $145,000. 

The  amalgam  from  the  main  sluice  is  worth  from 
$7  50  to  $8  50  per  ounce  Troy,  whereas  that  of  the  under- 
currents varies  from  $6  to  $6  20  per  ounce  Troy. 

The  result  of  the  undercurrents  and  tail-sluice  clean- 
ups for  the  year  1876-7  was  as  follows: 

Yield. 

Cut  A  to  B 334      ounces  amalgam. 

Tail  sluice  B  to  C 1,380}^ 

Undercurrent  No.  1 648^ 

2 280^ 

3 253^ 

4 i43?i 


6  months. 


j  69 


59V2 


Total  in  canon 


This  amount  (3,170  ounces)  equals  in  value  about  7  per 
cent,  of  the  total  yield  of  the  mine  for  the  fiscal  year,  dur- 
ing which  period  595,500  miner's  inches  of  water  have 
been  used,  extracting  $291,116  90  gold. 

Comparing  these  final  results  with  those  of  the  pre- 
vious year,  1875-6,  the  metal  is  found  distributed  through- 
out the  sluices  and  undercurrents  in  the  same  relative  pro- 
portions. 

This  fact  is  noteworthy,  since  in  1875-6  the  bulk  of 
the  material  moved  was  "top  gravel,"  while  in  1876-7  a 
much  larger  proportion  of  "  cement  gravel  "  was  run 
through  the  sluices. 

In  the  heavy  cement  at  French  Corral  and  Manzanita 


THE    DLSTRIIiUTION    OF    GOLD    IX    SLUICES. 


-D/ 


a  high  percentage  oi  the  gross  yield  ol  the  mines  is  found 
in  tlie  undercurrents. 

Hydraulic  mining  in  the  "  cement  claims  "  is  carried 
on  under  great  difficulties.  An  exhibit  of  the  workings 
of  the  sluices  of  a  representative  "  cement  claim  "  (French 
Corral)  is  here  giv^en,  and  the  contrast  thus  afforded  with 
the  workings  of  sluices  in  the  majority  of  cases  is  most 
striking  and  of  especial  interest. 

The  washings  from  the  French  Corral  mine,  after  pass- 
ing through  the  new  tunnel,  are  successively  distributed 
over  nine  undercurrents  before  they  are  finally  discharged. 
The  sizes  and  arrangements  of  these  undercurrents  are 
given  in  the  accompanying  table. 

TABLE    XXXI. 
French  Corral  Aline  Undercurrents^  etc. 


Undercurrents. 

Secondaries. 

Main  Sluice 

containing 

Grizzly. 

From  Mouth 

of  Tunnel 

down. 

Length  over 
all. 

J^ 

■^ 

^ 

* 

o 

Bottom  lined  with 

X 
^ 
^ 

■3 

0 
•a 
S 
0 

Ml 

C 

Width. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Per 
Cent. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Per 
Cent. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

No.  I 

42 

20 

8 

Blocks  6"  wide,  4"  deep.. 

" 

5 

"       2 

42 

20 

8 

" 

21 

12 

7 

42     1       6     • 

"     3 

42 

20 

8 

i  Blocks  for  14  ft 

) 

(  Longitudinal  rails,  28  ft.. 

V28 

6 

"     4 

"     5 

42 
42 

20 
20 

8 
8 

28 
42 

6 
6 

"     6 

42 

20 

8 

" 

28 

6 

"     7 

42 

20 

8 

"           .     " 

21 

12 

7 

4- 

6 

"    8 

42 

20 

8 

" 

28 

6 

"     9 

42 

20 

8 

"                 " 

28 

12 

7 

28 

6 

From  Janiiar}'  14  to  October  3,  1877,  there  were 
163,263  miner's  inches  of  water  discharged  over  these 
undercurrents,  and  the  corresponding  yield  of  the  wash- 


*  Grade  15  inches  in  14  feet. 


258 


THE   DISTRIBUTION   OF   GOLD   IX    SLUICES. 


iiigs  was  $201,284  36  gold,  17^^  per  cent,  (^f  said  amount 
being  found  in  the  undercurrents,  distributed  in  the  fol- 
lowing proportions  : 

TABLE    XXXI  A. 
Yield  of  the  Undercurretits,  etc.,  at  the  French  Corral  Mine. 


Amalgam  Yield  in  lbs.  Avoirdupois. 

S.5 

n  u 
£■5 
"o  0 

Undercurrents. 

Secondaries. 

S-3  2 

CVh  0  c 

c 

Nos. 

I 

2 

3 

4 

S 

6 

7 

8 

9 

I 

2 

3 

Lbs. 

g6 

67M 

56% 

42 

31 

24'/4 

^3K 

17 

12% 

SM 

iM 

I 

954 

388>!r 

I7-S 

As  a  further  illustration  of  the  distribution  of  gold  in 
the  sluices  of  hydraulic  claims,  a  classified  statement  is 
given  showing  the  workings  of  the  sluices  at  the  Man- 
zanita  Mine,  Sweetland,  Nevada  County,  from  December 
20,  1876,  to  October  3,  1877  : 

TABLE    XXXII. 


Date  of  Clean- 
up. 

£  3 
14 

Ill 
¥<■ 

-■^  a 

i5  "'S 
0  3  c 

H 

Amalgam  Yield  in  lbs.  Avoirdupois. 

■3 
0 

H 

2 

c 
.9 

"3 

P3 

3 

18 
37 

51 
46 
64 

333^ 
104 

c 

3 

H 

Long  Sluice  by 
Section. 

s 
u 

3 

U 

T3 
C 

I 
16 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

January  4 

March  17 

April  23 

June  8 

8,626 

25,937 
21,491 
29,187 
15,868 
17,000 
23,400 

16,958 

48 
103 

89H 

78 

S3 

66 
124 

8 
30 
30;^ 
343^ 

8^ 
17}^ 
44 

90 
170 
220 

241K 
157H 
154 
526 

40K 

$7,734  87 
15.970  S3 
20,238  SI 
21,562  47 
15,401  70 
15,970  S3 
46,307  19 

3,222  41 

49 

8354 

32 
15 

August  9 

September  29. .  . . 
From   top  Mine 

worked  in 
March  and  May. 

109 

37« 

28 

38 

64 

63 

109 

37M 

87 

64 

Total 

158,494 

353M 

S6i5^ 

iii^ 

172% 

1600 

$146,408  21 

THE    DISTRIBUTION   OF   GOLD    IN    SLUICES.  259 

The  arrangement  of  the  sluices  here  is  as  follows  : 

1st.   East  cut  contained,  average 40  boxes.* 

West  "  "       28      " 

2d.    Tunnel  "  "       120      " 

3d.    Long  sluice    "  "       300      " 

4th.  Undercurrents  (8  to  commence,  10  at  end).,        50      " 

Total 538       " 

The  long  sluice  is  divided  into  six  sections,  each  sec- 
tion containing  the  following  number  of  boxes  : 

1st  section,  29  boxes,  to  second  angle  below  tunnel. 

2d  "         56       "  Pease  Ravine. 

3d         "         23        "  Buckeye  Point. 

4th        "        67        "  Armstrong  Ravine. 

5th        "        62        "  Ouinn's. 

6th        "       63       "  Lower. 

The  sluices  m  the  cut  are  4  feet  in  width,  while  those 
in  the  tunnel  and  the  long  sluice  are  5  feet  wide,  all  of 
them  having  a  side  lining  of  blocks  3  inches  thick. 

The  riffles  used  in  the  cut  sluices  are  hand-sawed 
blocks,  133^  by  13^4  by  10  inches,  and  those  in  the  tunnel 
sluices  are  also  hand-sawed,  13^  by  13^  by  10  inches, 
and  17^  by  17)^  by  10  inches ;  about  half  of  each.  In  the 
long  sluice  quarried  granite  rocks  18  inches  thick  are  sub- 
stituted for  block  riffles.  The  grade  along  the  line  of  the 
cut  and  tunnel  is  7  inches  in  14  feet,  while  that  of  the  long 
sluice  averages  9  inches  in  14  feet,  with  drops  of  6  inches 
at  each  angle. 

The  imdercurrents  (10  in  number)  are  similar  to  those 
used  at  the  French  Corral  mine.  They  are  42  feet  long 
(the  apron  over  which  the  water  is  spread  forms  a  part), 
20  feet  wide,  set  on  grades  ranging  from  105^2  inches  to  16 
inches  per  box,  and  are  paved  with  blocks  6  by  17  by  4 
inches  in  size. 

The  three  following  tabulated  exhibits  are  self-expla- 
natory, and  show  in  the  Manzanita  mine  the  results  pro- 
duced by  widening  the  undercurrents. 

*  Each  bo.x  14  feel  in  length. 


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CHAPTER   XVIII. 

LOSS   OF   GOLD   AND    (JUICKSILVER. 

Loss  of  Quicksilver. — There  is  an  unavoidable  loss 
of  quicksilver,  the  amount  of  which  depends  on  the  char- 
acter of  the  gravel  washed,  the  quantity  of  water  used, 
the  grade,  length,  and  condition  of  the  sluices,  and  the 
number  of  davs  run.  The  use  of  a  long  line  of  sluices, 
kept  in  good  order,  and  the  employment  of  undercur- 
rents, tend  to  diminish  it. 

JLa  Grrang'e. — The  aggregate  amount  of  quicksilver 
lost  at  the  La  Grange  Hydraulic  Company's  mine  in  run- 
ning six  claims,  during  a  period  of  two  and  a  half  years, 
aggregating  1,520*  days  (24  hours  each),  washing  and 
moving  2,275,967  cubic  yards  of  gravel,  and  using  1,533,728 
miner's  inches  of  water  (2,159  cubic  feet  each),  was  553.75 
pounds. 

The  exact  loss  of  quicksilver  during  four  3'ears'  work 
on  the  various  claims  of  this  company  amounted  to  1,200 
pounds. 

North  Blooinfield. — For  the  year  ending  Novem 
ber   3,   1875,  the    North  Bloomfield  claims  used   464,600 
miner's  inches  of  water  (2,230  cubic  feet  each),  and  9,649 
pounds  of  quicksilver  were  employed  in  the  sluices. 

The  loss  of  quicksilver  at  the  respective  claims  was  as 
follows : 


Name  of  Claim. 

Miner's 
inches  used. 

Length  of 
Sluice. 

Loss  of 
Quicksilver. 

No.  8 

386,972 
51.550 
26,000 

Feet. 
1,800 

600 

400 

Lbs.         Per  ci. 
900              II 

217              25 

125              25 

Woodward 

Eisenbeck 

*  The  aggregate  number  of  days'  work  of  all  the  claims. 
263 


264 


LOSS   OF   GOLD   AND   QUICKSILVER. 


The  large  losses  at  the  Woodward  and  Eisenbeck 
claims  are  attributed  to  old  and  poor  sluices  and  steep 
grades.  For  the  year  ending  October  31,  1876,  the  loss 
of  quicksilver  at  the  same  claims  was  as  follows : 


Name  of  Claim. 

Miner's 
inches  used. 

Length  of 
Sluice. 

Loss  of 
Quicksilver. 

N0.8 

700,000 
30,000 
56,200 

Feet. 
1,800 

600 

400 

Lbs. 
2,251 

123 

182 

Woodward 

Eisenbeck 

In  1882  the  loss  of  quicksilver  at  the  North  Bloom- 
field  mines,  with  a  use  of  1,000,000  inches  of  water,  was 
3,390  pounds. 

The  following  table  shows  the  total  number  of  inches 
of  water  run,  total  corresponding  amount  of  gold  col- 
lected, and  loss  of  quicksilver  at  the  North  Bloomfield 
mine  from  1876  to  1882  inclusive  : 

TABLE   XXXVI. 


1876. 
1877. 

1878. 

1879 

1880. 

1881* 

1882. 


Water  used. 
Inches. 


740,650 
535.450 
793,999 
91S.983 
863,820 
744,600 
988,250 

5.585,752 


Bullion  produced. 


200,366 

54  1 

292,382 

95 

312,279  97   1 

331.759 

76 

287,924 

18 

236,935 

14 

386,146 

23 

$2,047,794  77 


Loss  of 
Quicksilver. 


21,512  lbs. 


In  rock  sluices  which  are  run  long  periods  without 
cleaning  up  the  loss  of  quicksilver  is  very  great.  The  24- 
foot  undercurrents  at  French  Corral  and  Manzanita  mines 


*  Shut  down  by  injunction  four  months. 


LOSS   OF   GOLD   AND   QUICKSILVER.  265 

are  estimated  to  lose  from  7  to  8  pounds  of  quicksilver 
per  run  of  10  weeks. 

Delaiiey  and  New  Kelley  Claims. — The  annexed 
table  shows  a  run  at  the  Delaney  and  New  Kelley  claims, 
in  Stanislaus  County,  where  tKe  grades  are  light ;  the  de- 
tails give  the  amount  of  quicksilver  charged,  loss  of 
quicksilver,  quantity  of  water  used,  and  the  cubic  yards 
of  gravel  mined,  with  all  attendant  costs. 

There  was  more  water  used  in  the  Delaney  than  in  the 
Kelley,  and  the  sluices  of  the  former  are  much  shorter 
than  those  of  the  latter.  The  composition  of  the  amal- 
gam obtained  at  the  Delaney  was  as  follows : 

Quicksilver ...     65. 19  per  cent. 

Gold 34S1 

Total 100.00         '• 

One  hundred  and  fifty-eight  pounds  of  this  amalgam 
were  retorted,  from  which  90  pounds  of  quicksilver  were 
distilled,  showing  a  loss  of  12.62  per  cent.  The  retorted 
gold  weighed  55  pounds,  and,  after  melting,  52  pounds — 
a  decrease  in  the  weight  (from  slagging  off  impurities, 
lead,  etc.)  of  three  pounds,  or  5.76  per  cent.  The  fineness 
of  this  bullion  was  .895. 

Loss  of  Gold. — The  most  efficient  means  of  savins: 
gold  from  cement  gravel  are  a  liberal  use  of  the  best  shat- 
tering powder,  breaking  the  cement  before  it  is  washed, 
and  the  introduction  of  several  "  drops,"  when  possible, 
along  the  line  of  the  sluices.  Frequent  drops  and  short 
lines  give  better  results  than  a  long,  continuous  line. 

Gravel  moving  in  sluices  is  subjected  to  a  grinding 
and  scouring  process  which  alone  is  not  sufficient  to  dis- 
integrate the  cement  gravel  unless  the  sluices  are  of  great 
length.  The  lessening  of  grades  and  the  use  of  undercur- 
rents tend  to  diminish  the  loss  of  fine  gold.  Extensive 
lines  of  sluices  and  undercurrents  are  expensive  to  build 
and  keep  in  repair.  Like  the  last  concentrator,  the  last 
undercurrent  will  alwavs  catch  some  metal. 


266 


LOSS   OF   GOLD   AND   QUICKSILVER. 


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LOSS   OF   GOLD   AND   QUICKSILVER.  267 

While  the  knowledge  ol  the  quantity  of  gold  in  gravel 
banks  remains  as  imperfect  as  it  is  at  present,  the  simple 
and  well-known  appliances  now  in  use  are  the  most  con- 
venient and  economical,  and  the  excuse  so  often  given 
for  small  yields — viz.,  loss  of  microscopic  gold,  and  bad 
sluices — can  be  set  down  as  one  ol  the  preliminary  in- 
dications ol  a  bad  investment. 

The  loss  of  quicksilver  in  sluices  would  seem  to  in- 
volve the  loss  of  gold,  but  it  is  practically  impossible  to 
determine  to  what  extent  this  is  the  case.  There  are 
many  conflicting  opinions  as  to  the  amount  of  fine, 
floured,  and  "rust"  gold  which  escapes,  but  in  properly 
constructed  sluices  the  appliances  already  known  save  all 
that  can  be  economically  or  profitably  caught. 

In  substantiation  of  this  can  be  cited  the  work  done  in 
1872-6  at  Gardner's  Point.  The  number  of  inches  of 
water  used  at  the  claim  during  this  period  is  not  known. 
The  number  of  cubic  3'ards  of  gravel  moved  has  been  ap- 
proximated from  the  best  obtainable  data  and  an  inspec- 
tion of  the  property.  From  1872  to  1874,  inclusive,  about 
148,000  cubic  yards  of  dirt  were  mined.  In  1875  the 
claim  was  run  full  time  only  fourteen  days.  In  1876,  40,- 
000  cubic  yards  of  gravel  and  260,000  cubic  yards  of  lava 
ashes  were  washed.  The  gross  yield  from  1872  to  1876 
was  $140,000. 

The  tailings  from  all  these  washings  were  caught  and 
confined  in  a  ravine  situated  a  short  distance  below  the 
claim.  The  length  of  the  sluices  through  which  the 
gravel  passed  was  1,378  feet,  with  three  undercurrents. 
In  1876  the  ravine,  supposed  by  many  to  be  exceedingly 
rich,  was  cleaned  up,  and  its  gross  yield  was  $1,168,  not 
one  per  cent,  of  the  total  receipts  from  the  washings. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 
THE  DUTY  OF  THE  MINER'S  INCH. 

The  quantity  of  material  that  is  washed  by  an  inch  of 
water  in  twenty-four  hours  is  called  its  "  duty."  Esti- 
mates of  the  average  duty  have  of  necessity  differed 
greatly,  since  the  inch  itself  denotes  a  varying  discharge 
of  1. 20  to  1.76  cubic  feet  per  minute  in  different  parts  of 
the  State.  Therefore  the  determination  of  the  "  duty  "  is 
good  onl}'  for  the  specific  condition  under  which  it  is 
made. 

The  circumstances  by  which  it  is  affected  are,  the 
quantity  of  water,  character  of  the  material  washed, 
height  of  banks,  use  of  explosives,  size  and  grade  of 
sluices,  and  class  of  riffles.  The  sluice  affects  the  duty 
of  the  inch  in  so  far  as  its  capacity  regulates  the  quantity 
washed. 

The  banks  of  the  mines  which  discharge  their  tailings 
into  the  American  River  consist  principally  of  small,  fine 
sediment,  disintegrated  rock,  and  materials  which  are 
easily  moved.  The  duty  of  the  inch  in  this  locality  is  as- 
sumed by  the  State  Engineer  to  be  4)^  cubic  yards  ;  while 
at  Dutch  Flat,  in  the  deep  washings,  he  found  it  to  ave- 
rage only  from  1.4  to  2  cubic  yards. 

The  duty  of  the  inch  in  the  mines  which  "  tail "  into 
the  Yuba  River  is  estimated  by  the  same  authority  to  be 
3.5  cubic  yards.  The  gravel  deposits  here  are  composed 
of  all  grades  of  material. 

The  following  table  from  Lieutenant-Colonel  Men- 
dell's  report  shows  the  State  Engineer's  estimates  of  the 
duty  of  the  inch  in  various  localities : 

263 


THE   DUTY   OF   THE    MINER'S    IN'CH.  269 

TABLE   XXXVUI.* 


Name  of  Streams. 

Quantity  of  Water  used 
111      Mining     and    dis- 
charged   into   beds   of 
rivers  in  24  hours. 

State   Engineer's 
Estimate  <if  the 
Duty  per  Inch. 

Amount  moved. 

Table    Mountain,    or 

Inches. 

833,250 
24,000 
1,259.363 
5,458,171 
1,117,082 
44,229 
1,914,500 

Cubic  Yards. 

3J^ 

3 

3% 

3% 

3 

3 

4.^2 

Cubic  Yards. 

2,916,375 
S4,(X)0 

4,407,770 

19,103,598 

3.351.246 

132,687 
8,615,250 

Butte  Creek    

Feather  River 

Y  uba  River 

Bear  River. 

Dry  Creek  No.  2 

American  River 

Total 

10,650.595 

3-6 

38,610,926 

The  average  duty  of  the  miner's  inch  in  the  deposits 
mined  and  discharged  into  the  San  Joaquin  and  its  tribu- 
taries, according  to  Lieutenant  A.  \V.  Payson,  Corps  of 
Engineers,  U.  S.  A.,  is  shown  in  Table  XXXIX. 

In  discussing  the  subject  Lieutenant  Payson  says :  "  1 
have  thought  it  fair  to  allow  for  the  larger  hydraulic 
mines  2]4,  yards  per  inch  ;  for  the  '  Jenn}-  Lind  '  and  many 
of  the  smaller  claims  with  low  banks,  deficient  head,  grade, 
and  water-supply,  2  yards ;  while  in  numerous  instances  of 
placer,  river,  and  drift  mining,  where  excavated  material 
is  thrown  into  sluice-boxes,  I  have  varied  the  amounts  ac- 
cording to  my  knowledge  of  the  circumstances.  .  .  .  The 
quantity  for  Calaveras  is  based  on  the  probable  tuture 
water-supply." 

From  empirical  data  at  the  Jennv  Lind  claim,  with  a 
grade  of  the  tail  sluices  of  ^V  to  -^^,  the  quantity  moved 
was  estimated  at  2.4  yards  per  inch.  The  material  was 
coarse  cemented  gravel  which  required  the  use  of  powder. 

At  Cherokee  Flat,  with  generally  ver}-  fine  material, 
high  banks,  head  of  300  to  350  feet,  and  grade  -^V,  5.5  cubic 
yards  are  reported  by  the  superintendent  as  the  duty  of 
the  inch. 


*  See  also  Report  State  Engineer,  1880,  part  iii.  p.  34. 


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THE    DUTY   OP^   THE    MINER  S    INCH. 


271 


At  Dutch  Flat,  in  Nevada  County,  the  duty  of  the 
miner's  inch  has  been  estimated*  at  certain  mines  to  be  as 
follows : 

TABLE  XL. 


Name  of  Mi'i- 

Inches  of  Wa- 
ter used. 

Total       Cubic- 
Yards  moved. 

Cubic  Yards 

moved  per  Inch 

of  Water. 

Southern  Cross 

299,144 

412,070 

91,409 

247,062 

598,050 
618,130 

326,147 
2,057,400 

2.02 
1.49 
3-4 
7-50 

Polar  Star 

Franklin 

Cedar  Claim 

In  the  State  Engineer's  report  the  estimates  are  un- 
doubtedly the  results  obtained  after  careful  investigation 
of  the  subject ;  but,  unfortunately,  the  quantit}'-  of  water, 
grades  and  size  of  the  sluices,  and  character  of  the  riffles 
are  not  given. 

According  to  Le  Conte,f  "  if  the  surface  of  the  ob- 
stacle is  constant,  the  force  of  running  water  varies  as  the 
square  of  the  velocity,  the  transporting  power  of  a  cur- 
rent varying  as  the  sixth  power  of  the  velocity ;  but  the 
power  of  removing  material  will  vaz"}-  between  the  square 
of  the  velocity  and  the  sixth  power  of  the  velocity." 

The  transporting  power  (as  used  by  Le  Conte)  and  the 
transporting  capacity  are  terms  which  must  not  be  con- 
founded.  Transporting  capacity  denotes  the  amount  of  ma- 
terial which  running  water  carries  along  per  unit  of  time. 

The  transporting  capacity  of  sluices  is  generally  great, 
er  (comparatively)  than  that  of  rivers,  on  account  of  the 
usually  heavier  grades  (from  200  to  300  feet  per  mile), 
regularity  of  cross  sections,  and  character  of  the  bottom 
and  sides  of  the  former. 

In  sluices  where  the  riffles  are  blocks  a  larger  amount 
of  material  is  moved  than  where  rock  riffles  only  are 
employed.  An  increase  in  the  grade  of  a  sluice  would 
necessaril}^  increase  its  carrying  capacity. 

*  Ky  the  State  Engineer,  W.  H.  Hall,  State  of  Cal.  vs.  Gold  Run  Ditch  and  Mining  Co. 
+  "  Elements  of  Geology,"  Jos.  Le  Conte,  pp.  19,  20. 


2/2  THE   DUTY   OF   THE   MINER  S   INCH. 

The  dirt  as  it  enters  the  sluice  has  its  lighter  portion 
taken  up  and  carried  in  suspension  by  the  current,  whilst 
the  coarse  and  heavy  material  moves  alon^r  on,  and  in 
part  above,  the  riffles,  but  below  the  surface  of  the  water. 
Boulders  and  rocks  mov-e  down  the  sluices  with  varying 
velocities  and  in  different  directions  as  they  advance,  aid- 
ing in  stirring  and  disintegrating  the  cement  gravel  and 
earthy  stuff,  which  little  by  little  fall  to  pieces  and  into  par- 
ticles that,  segregated  as  light  material,  rise  towards  the 
surface  of  the  water.  The  rocks  and  boulders  travelling 
over  the  riffles  assist  in  keeping  the  material  thoroughly 
agitated  in  the  sluices,  where  it  is  alternately  changing 
position  from  the  bottom  to  the  top,  until  it  is  finally  dis- 
charged. 

The  material,  wearing  down  as  it  advances,  is  kept 
from  packing  by  the  presence  of  the  rolling  rocks  which 
still  maintain  their  solidity.  Light,  sandy  gravel  requires 
very  wide  and  shallow  sluices,  as  it  cannot  be  washed  ad- 
vantageously in  deep  sluices,  unless  by  a  proper  mixture 
of  rocks,  which  permits  the  use  of  a  greater  quantity  of 
water,  so  that  the  capacity  of  the  same  sluice  is  increased. 
A  heavy  grade  will  compensate  for  a  limited  supply  of 
water.  With  an  abundant  suppl}'  of  water  and  material, 
the  capacity  of  sluices  will  depend  upon  : 

I  St.  The  character  of  the  material  washed  ; 
2d.  The  size  and  minimum  grade  of  the  sluices  ; 
3d-  The  character  of  the  riffles  used. 
The  statement  of  some  engineers  that  the  transporting 
power  (meaning  capacity)  of  a  sluice  increases   with  the 
third  power  of  its  grade  is  not  verified  by  the  compara- 
tive tests  which  have  been  recorded.      However,   these 
tests,  which  give  the  only  reliable  data  extant,  were  not 
made  with  the  same  material,  so  there  is  still  a  very  im- 
portant factor  undetermined. 

The  empirical  results  thus  far  obtained  demonstrate  that 
the  transporting  capacity  of  a  sluice  set  on  a  2.08  per 
cent,  grade,  and  that  of  a  sluice  on  a  4^  per  cent,  grade, 


THE   DUTY   OF   THE    MINER'S    INCH.  273 

vary  as  the  1.52  to  the  1.87  i)o\vers  i)i  these  grades.  How 
this  will  agree  with  the  results  obtained  from  properly 
conducted  experiments  on  increasing  from  4  (Jir  4^  to  8 
or  9  per  cent,  grades  remains  to  be  ascertained.  Mr. 
Hamilton  Smith,  Jr.,  considers  that  under  these  circum- 
stances the  transporting  power  (capacity)  of  the  sluice 
will  increase  about  with  the  square  of  the  inclination. 

Mr.  P.  M.  Randall  says  that  the  transporting  power 
(capacity)  of  water  is  as  the  3.75  power  of  the  velocity. 

From  official  data  of  the  Blue  Tent  Company  of  the 
amounts  of  light  material  washed  on  a  loj^  per  cent, 
grade,  it  would  appear  that  the  transporting  capacity  for 
such  material  varies  as  the  1.20  power  of  the  grade. 

The  time,  means,  and  facilities  for  the  careful  and 
thorough  investigation  and  determination  of  the  duty  of 
the  miner's  inch  have  not  as  yet  been  afforded  to  the  en- 
gineers who  have  been  appointed  for  this  purpose.  In 
most  cases  the  amounts  of  material  estimated  to  have 
been  removed  may  be  considered  as  mere  approximations, 
as  is  evidenced  by  the  wide  differences  in  the  many  esti- 
mates which  are  given  in  the  various  publications. 

In  the  suit  of  the  State  of  California  vs.  the  Gold  Run 
Ditch  and  Mining  Company  the  estimates  of  the  amounts 
of  material  washed  and  remaining,  made  b}'  the  various 
engineers  who  had  investigated  the  subject,  showed  dif- 
ferences as  great  as  33  per  cent,  where  the  question  of 
size  of  excavations  and  cubic  contents  was  alone  at  issue. 
The  difference  arose  largely  from  attempts  to  reconstruct 
from  insufficient  data  the  former  topography  ot  the  land 
mined,  no  accurate  information  upon  the  point  being  ob- 
tainable. 

The  only  known  attempts  at  any  extended  and  detailed 
investigation  of  the  duty  of  the  miner's  inch  have  been 
made  by  the  North  Bloomfield  and  the  La  Grange  Hy- 
draulic Mining  Companies.  The  results  of  the  work  per- 
formed at  these  mines  are  given  in  the  annexed  tabulated 
statement : 


274 


THE   DUTY    OF   THE   MINER  S   INCH. 


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CHAPTER  XX. 

STATISTICS    OF   THE    COSTS   OF   WORKING   AND   THE 
YIELD  OF  GRAVEL. 

Correct  statistics  showing  the  costs,  the  quantity  of 
material  washed,  and  the  corresponding  yield  of  gold  are 
rare  and  difficult  to  obtain.  In  the  early  days  of  placer- 
mining  in  California  the  question  to  be  solved  by  the 
miner  was  not  what  the  gravel  would  yield  per  cubic 
yard,  and  what  it  would  cost  to  move  it,  but  rather  how 
many  ounces  of  gold-dust  he  could  "  pan  out  "  or  "  rock 
out  "  between  sunrise  and  sunset.  What  the  miner  re- 
quired was  that  the  daily  yield  in  dust  should  exceed  the 
,cost  of  Hving,  etc.  When  it  fell  below  this  he  moved  his 
camp  to  other  grounds. 

The  wonderful  productiveness  of  the  river  bars  and 
shallow  placers,  attested  by  the  gold  bullion  and  dust 
shipments,  created  an  extravagance  usual  to  all  new  and 
rich  mining  countries,  the  baneful  effects  of  which  are 
still  felt. 

As  the  richest  and  most  easily  worked  placers  became 
exhausted  the  increasing  necessity  of  mining  on  an  exten- 
sive scale  and  with  ample  capital  led  to  the  formation  of 
large  companies.  Then  became  evident  the  importance 
of  determining  beforehand  the  amount  of  gold  in  the  va- 
rious claims  and  the  costs  of  working  them.  This  last 
included  various  engineering  problems,  as  the  best  grades, 
the  duty  of  the  inch,  etc.  In  this  manner  the  first  data 
concerning  the  yield  (commonly  estimated  per  cubic  yard, 
but  very  often,  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  per  inch  of 
water)  of  the  auriferous  gravels  were  published.     Many 


2/6     COSTS  OF  WORKING  AND  THE  YIELD  OF  GRAVEL. 

of  these  were  collected  and  printed  in  the  reports  of  the 
U.  S.  Comnjissioner  of  Mining  Statistics,  and  Prof.  Whit- 
ney has  added  to  them  in  his  "  Contributions  to  American 
Geology."  Detailed  investigations  have  been  undertaken 
of  late  by  the  State  Engineer  of  California  and  also  bv 
Lieutenant-Colonel  Mendell,  Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  A. 

There  is  now  obtainable  quite  a  large  amount  of  sta- 
tistics in  printed  form  ;  but  to  a  great  extent  these  are  of 
no  value,  partly  from  their  uni-eliability,  partly  from  their 
insufficiency  of  detail.  Miners  and  mining  corporations 
,  as  a  rule  object  to  making  public  anything  concerning 
their  property  except  what  is  absolutely  necessary,  and 
are  apt,  when  pressed,  to  give  ambiguous  information. 
As  it  is  impossible,  after  large  areas  of  ground  have 
been  washed  away,  to  accurately  reconstruct  their  topog- 
raphy, all  statistics  of  the  cubic  contents  of  excavations 
derived  from  surveys  made  after  mining  has  ceased  are 
unreliable. 

The  most  rehable  data  are  those  of  the  North  Bloom- 
field  and  the  La  Grange  Hydraulic  Companies,  both  of 
which  have  carried  on  their  works  in  the  most  intelligent 
and  satisfactory  manner. 

To  better  familiarize  the  reader  with  the  subject  of 
gravel-mining,  and  thus  enable  him  to  form  an  idea  of  the 
amount  of  water  used  per  cubic  yard  of  dirt  moved,  and  of 
the  corresponding  yield  and  attendant  costs,  an  exhibit  of 
a  claim  running  on  an  approximately  minimum  basis — viz., 
light  pressures  and  smallest  practicable  grades — has  been 
selected.  For  this  purpose  the  claims  of  the  La  Grange 
Company  have  been  chosen,  as  the  yield  per  cubic  yard 
and  the  grades  there  used  can  be  considered  as  nearly  the 
lightest  with  which  an  hydraulic  claim  can  )^ield  i-emun- 
erative  returns. 

The  annexed  tabular  statements  show  in  convenient 
form  the  data  alluded  to.*     The  tables  have  been  care- 

*  In  obtaining  the  data  for  these  tables  I  am  greatly  indebted  to  the  valuable  assistance  of 
Mr.  Joseph  Messerer,  superintendent  of  the  La  Grange  Ditch  and  Hydraulic  Mining  Company. 


COSTS  OF  WORKING  AND  THE  YIELD  OF  GRAVEL.      2/7 

fully  arranged,  and  the  data  of  the  yield  and  disburse- 
ments  are  accurate.  The  apportionment  of  the  material 
account  has  in  some  places  been  calculated  from  the  gene- 
ral material  account.  The  measurements  of  the  ground 
washed  were  made  at  each  clean-up,  and  subsequenth*  the 
entire  ground  was  resurveyed  and  the  work  checked. 


TABLE  XLVII. 

Resume  of  work  done  by  the  La    Grange  Co.   on  all  its  claims, 
June   I,    1874,  to  Sept.  30,    1876. 

1. 533-728  inches  (2,159  cubic  feet  each)  washed 
2,275,967  cubic  yards  of  gravel,  which  yielded 
12,026.84  oz.  Troy  =  $231,893. 


DISBURSEMENTS.                                                                                                 1 

1 

Water 

;  Per  ounce  tnetal 
Total.                     Per  cubic  yard.     |          produced. 

$17,307  62                 $0  008                   $1  43 

82,345  70     1             0  036                      6  85 

21,788  35                  0  010         j            1  Si 

11,244  94       )                                        0  94 

3,125   80       v          0  006                     0  26 

1,130  41       )                                        0  09 

1                            1 

Labor 

Material    

Official 

Contingent 

Taxes  

Total 

$136,942  82 

$0  060         j        $11  38 

Average  value  of  the  oz 
Average  yield  per  cubic 
Average  amount  of  grav 

.  of  metal  (gold  and  silver)  produced.  .$19  29 
yard  of  gravel 0  1019 

el  washed  per  inch,  cubic  \-ards i  48 

The  following  tabular  statements  show  the  workings 
of  a  mine  on  four  per  cent,  grades,  high  banks,  and  with 
great  hydrostatic  pressure.  The  advantages  of  heavy 
grades  and  pressure  over  the  minimum  La  Grange 
grades  are  clearly  shown  by  the  quantity  of  material 
moved,  and  a  comparison  of  the  work  and  costs  will  be 
of  interest  to  those  engaged  in  h)'draulic  mining  (see 
Table  XLVllI.) 


2/8     COSTS  OF  WORKING  AND  THE  YIELD  OF  GRAVEL. 


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COSTS  OF  WORKING  AND  THE  YIELD  OF  GRAVEL.      279 

TABLE   XLIX. 

Classification  of  Alines  afui  Minin^:;  Expenses. 


Class  I. — Mines  with  Grades  i^  to  2^  per  cent  : 


Banks  20  to  80  feet  high  ; 
many  cobbles;  few  boul- 
ders ;  cuts  light  ;  material 
easily  washed  ;  worth  8  cts. 
to  16  cts.  per  cubic  yard. 


Operating  expenses  35  to  60  per  cent,  of 
gross  yield,  segregated  as  follows  : 

Labor 60  per  ct. 

Material 16 

Water 13 

Explosives,  bank  powder. ...      i 

"  high-grade 

General 10 


Class  II. — Mines  with   Grades  4  to  4^^  per  cent  : 

f  Operating  expenses  45  to  52Ja'  per  cent,  of 

I  gross  yield,  segregated  : 
Banks  50   to    150   feet    high  ; 

few     boulders;      cuts      not    |           Labor    42perct. 

hard;      considerable     bank  J           Material 13       " 

blasting;      material     worth    |           Water 17       " 

20  cts.  to  27  cts.  per  cubic    I  Explosives,  bank  powder..  . .  17       " 

yard.  "           high-grade,  caps 

I               and  fuse 2        " 

1.           General 9       " 

100       " 


Class  in. — Mines  with  Grades  \\i  to  4?^  per  cent. 


Banks    20  to  100   feet   high  ; 
many  boulders ;  cuts  hard 
cement    gravel  :     blasting  ; 
material    worth   30  cts.    to 
41;  cts.  per  cubic  yard. 


f  Operating  expenses  55  to  65  per  cent,  of 

I       gross  yield,  segregated  : 

Labor 54  per  ct. 

J  Material 13       " 

Water 15        " 

Explosives,  bank  powder 7        " 

"  high-grade,  caps 

and  fuse 3       " 

General 8        " 


Class  IV. — Mines  with  Grades  4'/<  to  5  per  cent.: 


f  Operating  expenses  30  to  40  per  cent,  of 
gross  yield,  segregated  : 


Banks   100  to  350  feet  high  ;    | 
many  boulders  ;  hard  cuts  ;  J 
material  worth  s  cts.  to  12 
cts.  per  cubic  yard. 


Labor 54  per  ct. 

Material 11  " 

Water 15  " 

Explosives,  bank  powder. .. .  1  " 
high-grade,  caps 

and  fuse 7  " 

General 12  " 


Note. — This  e-itimate  is  based  on  the  supposition  that   each  company  owns  its  water. 
Wages  $2  50  per  diem. 


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TABLE   XLII. 


Tabular  Statement  showing  amount  of  Water  used  and  Cubic   Yards  of  Gravel  Mavedy  Cost  atui  Reetipts  of  Hydraulic   Washing,  from  May  jo.  iS;4,  to  Ottober  12,  1876. 


i 
1 

^  1 

1  1 

y 

w  il 

■ ;    5 

iv 

.1 

B 

1 
3 

A.;iMi. 

*.™.c,. 

ToulCol 

J 

».l.,l..C-.,.,C.b«V.,l. 

i 

iluli,..vi.ia.                      1 

j 

1 
1 

1 

11  tl 

1 
P 

1 

i 
1 

1 

1 

J 

i 
1 

1 

1 

1 

i 

-o5» 

i 

1 

|! 

!  'A 

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;; 

1 
1 
f 

,,:    1 

1 
1    , 

;!Oii  ::■ 

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■ 

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tc-i. 

:- 

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;r; 

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TZ 

fc.. 

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fo^S'fi 

«.„,,.  |,..V.M 

w^ 

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••- 

too,^ 

*—' 

-I- 

■"■' 

.„.»..i 

# 


TAIII.R  xt.m. 

Tiibiilar  Stitlemenl  shmving  Amount  of  Water  used  and  Cubu   YarM  of  Grtwel  moved.   Cost  aiul  Rtaipts  of  Hydraulie   Wathin^.  from  February  ii.   1875.  /*>  September  tb,  iSj6, 


1 

.1 

[Mirth, 

I. 

1 
1 

1  ii 

ll 
1 

AV,.Vi.U.  1      A™n,.C»i 

Toul  Coi.                                  1 

R«luiteC«lreiCubkV«f<t             | 

B. 

lk.VUU 

i 

i 
I 

1 

n 

8.' 

1 

,  i 

1 

1 

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1 

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1  1  1  1  1 

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1 

1^ 

- 

1 

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1 

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] 

11. 

1 

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1  «fl 

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,..„.... 

>„,.... 

..„...-,>.,....,.„,..., 

*"'• 

--,•■" 

■•-/■■-■               -■'•" -■ 

TABLI-   XLIV, 


Tabular  StaitmenI  slmvitif^  Amount  of    Water  uiai  and  Cubic    Yards  of  Gravei  mavfd.  Cost  and  Retttpts  of  Hydraulic    Waihing,  from  June   I.   1S74,  to  October  .?,   ISlC. 


I 

Ij 

1 
P 

ii 
It. 

A, ■„  VUU. 

«„„„c... 

T.u,lC« 

1 
1 

ii,i.,i»,c..,„,c.bi.y.»i. 

1 

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1 

1 

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i 

1- 

1 

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1 

|i 

1 

1 

i 

i 
1 
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1 
1 

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ii 

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ii 

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S" 

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-Silii 

lii 

.. 



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,           «„ 

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fc7.W, 

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x^,..,. 

TAULE   XLV. 


Tabuhr  SUMmitil  ilicwing  Amomil  of  WaUr  usid  ,m,l  Cubii   Yards  »/  Gnml  m<r,:r,l,  Cml  ,tml  Rmlpi,  of  H>dni,li<   Wnshing.  from  March  i,  1S75,  r-  Dmmlir  16,   1875. 


i 

i 

i 
1 

ill 
111 

lis 

1 

'i 

I 

1 

11 

1 

A.-t.Vi.U. 

A..,.I.Col. 

T...IC»l- 

K.l.,.,.  C,  „.  C.b,,  v.,0. 

B„IU.  V..U.                              1 

i 

I 

1 

l 

11 

h 
P 

1 

1 

i 

j 

1 

1 

1 

i 

ji 

1 

jl 

1 

l! 

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1 

i 

i 

1 
1 

t  r:: 

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s 

11 
... 

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Si? 

M.oi 

9,«os 

.... 

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... 

-- 

.i. 

..i 

u 

i.«. 

f,, 

i}3>     $.«Jl!'i 

\n,  . 

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..,.  ^■. 

S.O, 

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fc..» 

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fc...,- 

.*., 

!.,,..,. 

5,.,..,. 

.,.«., 

».,. 

».-.. 

.-» 

.. 

„.». 

,.» 

....>.|..."U^ , 

TABLE  XLVI. 

The  Sicakd  Claim. 

Tabular  Slalmiiil  shmms  Ammiil  »/  Walir  iiuJ  and  Cubit   Yards  0/  Grand  mmid.   Cos:  and  Riaipit  of  aydrmllc   Wat/Hnf.  from  May  iS,   r874,  lo  January  ji.  1875. 


1 — 

- 

— 

i 
1 

1% 

1 

! 

j 
1 

j 

i 

8 

is 

ll 

A.',.Vi.». 

»..„„C..,- 

T«LC., 

1 

K,i..,..c»...,<:..l.v.-i 

B...,..Vi.M. 

1 

1 J 

i 

1 

1 

i 

'  " 
•• 

11 

si 

•1 

I'i 

1 

.    1      : 

^ 

J 
J 

1 

1 

1 

II: 

1 

1 

1 

i 

1 

.: 

Is 

1^1! 

^^■ 

!.««. 

*;:'• 

t^fis 

:!:: 

(J.)»  !• 

:^r 

iBii 

-n 

.  &   Iso  « 

fc„ 

fc»,. 

^,„. 

...,:. 

.,,.„„;  ....  ,^,« 

►.1.7 

«,»!  .. 

fc..,'    t,M, 

k-„ 

5,^,1    >.».,'  (..« 

« 11''  I. .. 

«..»•»..,»., 

TABLE   L!. 
Yield  of  Gravel,  including  smaller  HydrauUe  D'ijt  and  Cement  Claims,  according  in  Aullwrilies  given. 


»,.,..,  c». 

w.,».. 

^tEff- 

„.».v,.. 

^CfS.. 

"IS" 

..,w„„        j 

B<n»i 

OU..™Co 

*s> 

»..,»«. 

"fe 

J.R„|.g„ 

C.kul».«l  from  J>l>  in  R;.ymond-.  R.p,.  .S«. 

jSv;::::::;'::::";- 

;;« 

PIDoraduCo  ■ 

Nig'i«',  ?.:....;.;■;.:."" 

"V;™ 

ij,B(»» 

i" 

'4 

B?«TiM".:  .: 

7te.t™« 

m^^,^^ 

^'^ 

!l!l!!Ii 

„ 

,»,.„ 

^ ; ^ ,. :,::;;*:cl^-"ir 

Si-'::'-:- 

pu».^:::::: 

..»«.»63 

'":"" 

Colpo...  Pni« 

;..    ;i'Vv^.V"s„-CoMribu>«n..oAm    G^l^.-Whi.- 

E^V^t 

[32"'''"^'"^. 

^5i 

„,'..?„. 

ti 

W.H.P„tt 

;!5ri^?e'''-^''''"''-'-^''= 

LfcSO.1.. 

«"! 

I,S« 

"! 

.le 

W.».C„l„„ 

;  ■ "  ^,v-,..<;,"  i-;i.'tVh'i'.'^  r<-6.  '^"'"*"""'"  "■  *"• 

"■?•■"" :::                -    - 

'":" 

":X3 

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J«.McG;ll,vr,y,- 

1  hi,  d<p«i<  conuincd  n»oy  l»K«  bouM.n. 

Gp™.".°"'  °"      u"t".''ti'S;r'c'i° 

"'"" 

'SSi 

ksI' 

'? 

c'L.H,;a.i.^:, 

Drirud. 

5v/d".?'.'!i,n,.        i  """"■ :° 

,...,,, 

^ii 

'f 

Y^F'?- 

[sh.iiq^Kxm. 

^^^    '''■' ' 

;!§ 

B 

.;;• 

ciiu.HMd«i;, """;:: 

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;ii^:';ir' ""'"■'    '"'"" 

't.™ 

'■™" 

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■■„ 

R.ynioi.d-.H.p,.  iSf,, 
W   K.Co„B„ 

C«.p«. 

^jrSSK: ;.';:: 

1 

l*'ciiMfciI„""p^)»M?-*""'"'       "      "" 

[;"';/;"'^--                    v„>,,i-..      

*to'™ 

"'J'-™  « 

» 

W."  AAbi'imer   Md  j 

'■ 

D.  Higur. 

yUlJ  ./  GnntI  in  Foriig,,  GM-FM 


— - 

p„..... 

No.  ol  Cubi 

S5J. 

'gts- 



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1 "  ■ 

r ' '  ■    f'-™""^- 

'is 

fi 

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Si 
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SI 

,      G'int.°N!'s,Kv^''.*'' 

Official':  ,:; 

Officul'..     . 

Offio.l; 

.1,,. 

;g:;!a: 

yoICv«d>..u,. 

APPENDIX. 


APPENDIX   A. 

San  Francisco,  Cal.,  May  26,  1884. 
A.  J.  Bowie,  Jr.,  Esq.,  Present : 

Dear  Sir  :  You  will  find  herewith  a  statement  of  the 
produce  of  gold  in  the  United  States  since  its  discovery 
in  this  State  in  Januar}^  1848,  to  the  close  of  the  fiscal 
year  ending  June  30,  1883,  prepared  b\-  me  at  your  re- 
quest. 

The  imperfect  methods  of  collecting  and  preserving 
such  data  in  this  country  are  so  well  known  to  statisti- 
cians and  others  as  to  scarcely  require  any  apologv  for 
the  inaccuracies  of  these  estimates  or  the  indulgence  kA 
your  readers.  I  have  long  been  satisfied  that  the  pro- 
duce of  the  precious  metals  in  this  country,  as  well  as  in 
others,  has  been  considerably  exaggerated,  and  that  the 
tendency  to  over-estimation  is  inherent  in  the  methods 
adopted.  My  long  connection  with  the  mining  indus- 
tries of  this  coast,  however,  through  metallurgical  opera- 
tions of  great  magnitude,  enables  me  to  eliminate  some  of 
the  inaccuracies  which  have  crept  into  published  state- 
ments, and  which  have  been  adopted  and  repeated  by 
subsequent  statisticians. 

Undoubtedly  the  most  reliable  method  of  determin- 
ing the  produce  of  this  country  in  the  aggregate  is  that 
based  upon  the  deposits  of  '*  domestic  "  g<^ld  made  at  the 
several  mints,  as  stated  in  the  directors'  reports,  and  the 
exports  of  uncoined    domestic   bullion,  as  shown  bv  those 


252  •  APPENDIX. 

of  commerce  and  navigation  ;  though  in  its  distribution 
both  of  these  reports  are  necessarily  more  or  less  defec- 
tive in  detail,  and  the  latter  more  particularly  contain 
many  palpable  errors  and  omissions. 

In  order  to  conform  to  the  data  derived  from  these 
reports  I  have  stated  my  estimates  in  fiscal  years  instead 
of  calendar  years,  which  are  usually  adopted  by  other  sta- 
tisticians. As  I  only  have  the  mint  reports  as  far  back  as 
1855,  I  have  not  the  details  of  foreign  gold,  old  United 
States  gold  coin,  jewellers'  bars,  and  old  plate  deposited 
from  1848  to  1854.  I  have,  therefore,  estimated  these 
items  for  this  period  at  five  millions,  which  I  find  to  be 
about  the  excess  of  the  coinage  over  the  *'  domestic  "  gold 
deposited,  as  shown  in  the  "  Summary  "  tables  of  the  re- 
port of  1873.  In  the  navigation  reports  the  uncoined  gold 
exported  was  not  separated  from  that  of  gold  coin  prior 
to  1855.  I  have,  therefore,  estimated  the  amount  for  these 
seven  years  at  $88,479,269,  including  the  $33,479,269  of 
fine  bars  made  at  the  Philadelphia  mint  in  1853  and  1854 
and  not  accounted  for  in  the  coinage. 

It  may  be  well  here  to  note  also  another  fact  which  I 
think  has  been  generally  ignored  or  overlooked,  and  that 
is  the  large  amount  of  private  coinage  made  here  by  the 
old  United  States  Assay  Office  and  other  coiners  from 
1849  to  1855,  which  was  almost  our  only  currency  on  this 
coast  during  that  period.  From  the  best  information  I 
can  obtain  on  this  point  there  could  not  have  been  much 
less  than  $60,000,000  thus  coined  for  the  seven  3^ears  em- 
braced. Much  of  this,  however,  was  exported  as  soon  as 
made,  but  there  could  not  have  been  much  less  than  $25,- 
000.000  or  $30,000,000  in  circulation  when  the  mint  here 
went  into  operation,  April  i,  1854.  It  then  disappeared 
verv  rapidly,  and  I  have  eliminated  the  amount  entirely 
by  deducting  it  from  the  apparent  produce  of  the  years 
1854,  1855,  and  1856,  and  have  added  it  to  that  of  pre- 
vious years,  distributing  it  to  the  best  of  my  judgment. 
In  addition  to  this  there  should  be  added  to  the  ascer- 


APPEiXDlX.  283 

tained  produce  of  these  earlier  years  an  appreciable 
amount  for  what  was  taken  out  of  the  country  in  private 
hands.  In  consequence  of  the  high  rates  charged  by 
steamers  in  those  days  on  the  export  of  treasure  (5  per 
cent,  and  primage),  a  very  large  amount  was  thus  taken 
from  the  country.  For  several  years  the  deposits  at  the 
Eastern  mints  exceeded  by  ten  or  fifteen  millions  annually 
the  entire  exports  from  this  city,  as  shown  by  the  Custom- 
House  records.  As  every  steamer  carried  from  five  hun- 
dred to  one  thousand  passengers,  no  inconsiderable  amount 
must  have  gone  abroad  in  the  same  way.  At  a  later  pe- 
riod, say  from  1862  to  1872,  more  or  less  gold  was  thus 
taken  out  of  the  country  by  returning  Chinese,  but  never 
to  the  extent  some  have  supposed.  Xearl}-  the  whole  of 
this  gold  was  obtained  from  the  establishment  of  which  I 
was  the  manager,  and  I  therefore  speak  advisedly. 

It  may  be  well  to  explain  here  also  the  causes  of  the 
marked  decline  in  the  produce  of  California  gold  in  cer- 
tain 3'ears.  That  of  1857  was  largely  due  to  the  great 
excitement  and  resulting  exodus  from  our  mining  dis- 
tricts incident  to  the  Frazer  River  discoveries  in  British 
Columbia.  The  rapid  decline  which  is  noticeable  from 
about  1863  was  due,  in  part,  to  the  two  excessively  drv 
years  of  1862-63  and  1863-64,  but  to  a  still  greater  ex- 
tent to  the  great  loss  of  mining  population  resulting  from 
the  silver  discoveries  in  Nevada — not  less  than  from  fif- 
teen to  twenty  thousand  of  our  population  leaving  for 
that  State  within  a  few  years  following  these  discoveries. 
The  increase  in  California  gold  noticeable  from  about 
1878  is  mainly  due  to  the- produce  of  the  Standard  and 
other  mines  in  the  Bodie  district. 

While  stating  the  produce  of  California  at  about  $1,- 
100,000,000,  my  belief  is  that  it  does  not  exceed  $1,050,- 
000,000,  if  so  much.  I  can  trace  to  this  city  at  least 
$25,000,000  of  uncoined  foreign  bullion,  principally  from 
British  Columbia,  which  has  not  been  accounted  for  by 
deposits  at  the  mint  or  re-exports.     I   personally  know 


284  APPENDIX. 

that  much  the  larger  portion  of  this  gold  went  into  the 
private  refinery,  and  subsequently  into  the  mint  as  "  fine 
gold  "  from  that  establishment.  Again,  the  directors'  re- 
ports do  not  designate  localities  at  the  mint  here  prior  to 
1862,  and  up  to  that  date  all  domestic  gold  has  been  cre- 
dited to  California.  At  the  Philadelphia  mint  the  first 
receipts  of  gold  from  Oregon  were  in  1853.  As  all  gold 
from  that  State  was  first  shipped  to  this  city,  doubtless 
large  amounts  went  into  the  mint  here,  and  that  which 
did  not  was  exported  East  under  the  stamp  of  some  San 
Francisco  assayer  and  there  credited  to  California.  From 
about  1864,  and  lor  a  number  of  years  subsequent  thereto, 
heav}^  shipments  also  set  in  from  Idaho  and  Montana  via 
Oregon,  ranging  for  quite  a  period  from  five  to  eight  mil- 
lions per  annum.  From  1862  to  1883  nearly  $40,000,000 
of  domestic  gold  is  credited  at  the  mint  here  to  "  other 
States  and  Territories";  and  as  the  private  refinery  and 
the  other  assay  offices  did  a  much  larger  business  in  the 
aggregate  than  the  mint,  it  is  fair  to  presume  that  at  least 
an  equal  amount  of  this  gold  went  into  these  establish- 
ments, and  its  identity  was  thus  destroyed  before  it 
reached  the  mints.  I  therefore  consider  it  a  very  low 
•estimate  to  say  $25,000,000  of  this  gold  has  been  credited 
to  California  through  fine  gold  from  private  refineries  and 
assayers'  imported  bars.  This,  however,  does  not  affect 
the  accuracy  of  the  statement  so  far  as  the  aggregate  re- 
sult is  concerned,  but  only  its  distribution. 

In  the  analysis  I  have  been  compelled  to  make  of  the 
exports  of  uncoined  domestic  treasure,  a  suspicion  I  have 
long  entertained  has  been  fully  confirmed,  and  that  is 
that  a  very  considerable  amount  of  the  gold  contained  in 
the  produce  of  our  silver-mines  has  been  exported  under 
the  silver  valuation.  This  is  clearly  evident  from  the  fact 
that  in  quite  a  number  of  years  the  gold  so  contained,  and 
not  accounted  for  by  "  gold  parted  "  "  from  silver  "  at  the 
mints  and  private  refineries,  exceeds  considerably  the  en- 
tire exports  of  uncoined  domestic  gold. 


Al'l'ENDIX.  285 

I""  the  summary  statement  which  here  follows  it  will 
be  G  ^served  that  I  have  stated  the  amount  of  gold  con- 
sun  ed  in  the  arts,  lor  the  period  considered,  at  $50,000,000. 
1  a/ 1  satisried  that  this  is  in  excess  of  the  facts.  I  have  on 
several  occasions  made  a  partial  investigation  of  this  ques- 
tion for  my  own  information,  and  the  results  have  alwavs 
impressed  me  with  the  idea  that  the  popular  imj)ressi<)ns 
upon  this  subject  were  very  much  exaggerated.  Native 
gold  is  absolutely  unfitted  lor  the  arts  without  refining, 
and,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  amount  of  quartz  jewel- 
ry and  a  few  curiously  shaped  specimens  of  j)lacer  gold, 
is  not  employed  for  such  purposes  to  anv  appreciable  ex- 
tent. The  amount  so  employed  is,  therefore,  almost  fully 
accounted  for  by  the  deposits  at  the  various  mints,  and 
should  be  considered  with  reference  to  the  entire  stock  of 
gold  in  the  world,  and  not  confined  to  the  current  annual 
produce.  The  Director  of  the  Mint,  in  his  report  of  1879, 
gives  the  results  of  his  investigations  of  this  question,  as 
shown  by  the  operations  of  the  United  States  Assay  Of- 
fice at  New  York  for  the  seven  years  from  1873  to  1879. 
both  inclusive.  According  to  this  statement  it  would  ap- 
pear that  for  this  period  $24,780,884,  or  $3,540,000  per  an- 
num, had  been  obtained  from  this  office  for  manufactur- 
ing purposes.  By  analyzing  the  operations  of  that  Im- 
stitution,  however,  it  will  appear  that  not  much  more 
than  $1,500,0(30  per  annum  is  chargeable  to  the  current 
annual  produce  of  domestic  gold.  Succinctly  stated,  these 
operations  were  as  follows  : 

Gold  of  domestic  production  deposited,  $48,477,238  ; 
line  gold  sent  to  Philadelphia  for  coinage,  $59,920,443  (ex- 
cess, $1 1,443,205) ;  receipts  of  foreign  gold  and  United 
States  gold  coins  for  recoinage,  $37,322,340  ;  jewellers' 
bars,  old  plate,  etc.,  $3,690,834.  By  deducting  this  latter 
sum  we  have  left  $21,090,050  as  the  amount  of  nen'  gold 
going  into  the  arts.  Apportioning  this  to  the  total  re- 
ceipts, we  have  $1 1,916,000,  or  $1,702,000  per  annum,  to  be 
charged  to  domestic  gold,  and  $9,174,000   to    be  charged 


286  APPENDIX. 

to  gold  from  other  sources.  But  for  the  same  period  the 
receipts  of  jewellers'  bars,  etc.,  at  the  Piiiladelphia  mint 
exceeded  all  the  fine  bars  made  by  that  institution  by 
some  $1,351,143,  or  $193,020  per  annum;  and  the  opera- 
tions of  these  two  establishments  are  so  intimately  con- 
nected that  they  should  be  considered  together.  De- 
ducting this  excess  leaves  only  $1,500,000  per  annum  to 
be  charged  against  the  current  annual  produce.  The 
business  has  greatly  increased  within  the  past  few  years, 
but  1  am  satisfied  that  the  average  of  these  seven  years  is 
considerably  above  that  of  the  whole  period  under  con- 
sideration. In  this  city,  where  the  gold  thus  employed 
is  obtained  entirely  from  the  private  refinery,  it  has  not, 
until  within  a  year  or  two  past,  exceeded  $25,000  per  an- 
num. But  it  has  now  increased  to  from  $120,000  to 
$150,000. 

1  should  explain,  perhaps,  that  in  the  statement  of  gold 
parted  from  silver  at  the  mints  I  have  added  to  the 
amount  as  shown  by  the  director's  summary  statement 
the  amount  credited  at  the  Carson  mint  to  "  Nevada,"  as 
nearly  the  whole  amount  so  credited  evidently  came 
from  Comstock  bullion. 

By  deducting  from  the  aggregate  deposits,  as  stated 
in  this  summar}^  the  deposits  prior  to  1848  ($12,808,771) 
and  the  unparted  bars  made  at  the  other  assay  offices  and 
not  redeposited  at  New  York  or  Philadelphia,  we  have  as 
the  whole  amount  of  domestic  gold  deposited  at  the  mints 
and  New  York  Assay  Office  since  1848,  $1,179,824,781. 

To  wit :  From  California $723,043,793 

"      Other  States  & 

Territories..       171,482,218 
"      Parted  from  sil- 
ver bullion..         39.584,350 
"      Private  Refine- 
ries, fine  gold      245,714,420 

$1,179,824,781 


A1'1'EM)IX.  287 

Amount  brought  forward $1,179,824781 

Foreign   gold,   U.    S.   gold   coin,  jewellers' 

bars,  etc 351,735.237 


Total  deposits  from  all  sources $1,531,560,018 

Total  gold  coinage .  .  .$1,264,623,632 

Uncoined  bullion  on  hand  June 

30,  1883,  estimated 65,000,000 

Mint     deposits    consumed    in 

arts 50,000,000 

Mint  deposits  to  be  accounted 

for  in  exports 1 5 1,936,386 

$1,531,560,018 

The  operations  of  the  private  refineries  here  from  1865 
to  1883  have  amounted  to  $265,886,266,  of  which  $243,- 
597,532  was  deposited  in  the  mint  and  $22,288,734  sold  for 
export.  Of  the  whole  amount  received  $191,992,266  was 
in  gold  dust  and  bars,  and  $73,894,000  was  parted  from 
silver.  I  have  distributed  these  amounts  to  the  best  of 
my  judgment.  Making  the  resume  in  another  form,  we 
have  : 

Total  gold  coined,  as  above $1,264,623,632 

"      uncoined  gold  exported 463,943,938 

"      uncoined  gold  on  hand  and  consumed 
in  arts 115 ,000,000 


$1,843,567,570 
Less  foreign  gold,  etc.,  as  above 35 1 '735 -237 

Total  produce  of  domestic  gold $1,491,832,333 

My  estimates  as  per  statement 1,469.753,1 17 

Difference $22,079,216 

This  difference  is  due  to  the  foreign  gold  credited  to 
domestic  sources  in  mint  reports,  through  fine  gold  from 
private  refineries,  but  which  1  have  eliminated. 
Very  truly  yours,  etc., 

[Signed]  Louis  A.  Garnett. 


288 


Al'PKNDlX. 


Produi'e  of  Gold  in  the  United  States  from  its  discovery  in  Cali- 
fornia^ y^anuary,  1848,  to  June  30,  1883.  Stated  in  Fiscal 
Years. 


Years. 

Gold  produced 

in  State 
of  California. 

Gold  pro- 
duced in  other 
States  and 
Territories. 

Total  produce 
of  Gold-Mines. 

Gold  con- 
tained in  Sil- 
ver Produce. 

Grand  Total 

I'roduce  fr^m 

all  sources. 

1848.... 
1849...- 

1850.... 
.851.... 
1852.... 
.8,3   .. 
1S54... 

1855.... 
1856.... 

1857   ■•■ 
1858.... 
1859   ■■• 

i860'.  . . . 
1861.... 
1862   ..-. 
.863.... 
1864.... 

1865.... 
1866.... 
1867.... 
1868.... 
1869.... 

1870.... 

1871 

.872.... 
'873   • 
1874.    .. 

1875   ... 
1876.... 
1877.... 
1878... 
1879.... 

1880 

1881.... 
1882.... 
1883.... 

Totals.. 

$245,301 
10,151,360 

$851,274 
927.684 

$1,096,575 
1 1.079,044 

$50,000 

800,000 

2,150,000 

4,350,000 

5,300,000 

$1,096,575 
1 1,070,044 

10,396,661 

1,778.958     '           12.175.619 

12,175,619 

41,273,106 
75,938,232 
81,294,700 
67,613,487 
69.433.931 

665,217 
602,380 
712,263 
508,564 
251,627 

47,938.323 
76,540,612 
82,006,963 
68,122,051 
69,685.558 

41.938,323 
76,540,612 
82,006,963 
68,122,051 
69,685,558 

335,553.456 

2,740,051 

338,293,507 

338,293,507 

55,485,395 
57,509,411 
43,628,172 
46,591,140 
45,846.:;99 

312,364 
369,031 
143,053 

386,038 
366,957 

55,797,759 
57,873,442 
43,771,225 
46,977,168 
46,213,556 

55,797,759 
57,878,442 
43,771.225 
46,977,168 
46.213,556 

249,060,717 

1,577,433     1         250,638,150 

250,638,150 

44,095,163 
41,884.995 
38,854,668 
23,501,736 
24,071,423 

875,878 
2,831,895 
3,989,210 
7.474,808 
8,372,115 

44,971,041 
44,716,890 
42,843.878 
30,976.544 
32,443,^38 

45,021,041 

45,516,890 
44,993,878 
35,326,544 
37.743,538 

172,407,985 

23,543,906 

195,951,891 

12,650,000 

208,601.891 

( 

17,930,858 
17,123,867 
18,265,452 
17.555,867 
18,229,044 

9,920,244 
12,086,941 
13,169,117 
7,942.116 
7,607,698 

27,851,102 
29,210,808 
31,434,569 
25,497,983 
25,836.742 

5,500,000 
4,650,000 
5,700,000 
4,000,000 
3,550,000 

33,351,102 
33,860,808 
.37,134.569 
29,497,983 
29,386,742 

89.105.088 

50,726.116 

139.831.204 

23.400.000 

163,231,204 

17,458,133 
17,477,885 
15,482,194 
15,019,210 
17,264,836 

7,907,569 
7.813,419 

6,975,843 
7,213,768 
6,863,012 

25,365.702 
25,291,304 
22,458,037 
22,232,978 
24,127,848 

3,700,000 
5,500,000 
6,900,000 
12,000.000 
11.500,000 

29,065,702 
30,791,304 
29,358,037 
34,232,978 
35,627,848 

82,702,258 

36,773,611 

119,475,869 

39,600.000 

159.075.860 

16,876,009 
15,610.723 
16,501,268 
18,839,141 
19,626,654 

5,572,299 
5.511,272 
8,862,694 

9,755.213 
10.421,948 

22,448.308 
21,121,995 
25,363,962 
28.594,354 
30.048,602 

13,800,000 
18,500.000 
18,300,000 
19,000,000 
9.000,000 

36,248,308 

39.621,905 
43,663,962 

47,594,354 
39,048,602 

87,453.795 

40,123,426              127,577.221 

78.600,000 

206,177.221 

20,030,761 
19,223,155 
17,146,416 
17,256,873 

9,209,033 
10,139,136 
8,468,141 
8,586,141 

29,239,794 
29,362,291 

25,614,557 
25,843.014 

6,000,000 
6,000,000 
5,000,000 
4,500,000 

35,2.39.794 
35,362,291 
30,614,557 
30,343,014 

73,657,205 

36,402.451 

110,059,656 

21,500.000 

131,559,656 

$1,100,337,165 

$193,665,952 

$1,294,003,117       $175,750,000 

$1,469,753,117 

APPENDIX. 


289 


APPENDIX   B. 

FINENESS   OF    PLACER   GOLD. 


Mine. 

Locality. 

Fineness. 

Remarks. 

Alpha  

Nevada  Co. 

.940  to  .950 
•934 

j  Gold   flattened    in 

American  Hill 

(      scales. 

Brush  Creek 

"         " 

.820 

Manzanita 

"         " 

.925  to  .930 

Gild  coarse. 

French  Corral 

"         " 

.930  to  .950 

Gold  fine. 

\    Gold     coarse     on 

Badger  Hill 

Plumas  Co. 

.925  to  .950 

"(       bed-rock. 

Mumford  Hill 

" 

•945 

Michigan   Bluft" 

Placer  Co. 

.835  to  .S71 

Gold  coarse. 

Cariboo  Diggings 

.  k                        4  t 

.774  to  .800 

j  Gold  well  rounded 
(      and  smooth. 

Cement  Hill  Claims  . . 

" 

.883 

(  Gold  *    from    blue 

Cedar  Claim  No.  2...  . 

" 

.800  to  .961 

<      and    red     gravel 

(      respectively. 

I  Gold    from    upper 

Cherokee  Flat 

Butte  Co. 

.958  to  .96S 

<    gravel   sometimes 
(    reaches  .980  fine. 

Canon  Creek 

Sierra  Co. 

.942  to  .965 
.800 

.S84 

Canon  Creek 

Bed  of  the  creek. 

Good3ear's  Bar 

North  Vuba 

it        •< 

.835  to  .890 
.920  to  .930 

Eureka  Mines  (near  ) 
Downieville) f 

<(        it 

.930  to  .934 

.836 

Gold  coarse  like  shot. 

Fir  Cap 

Monte  Christo 

"        " 

.914 

Craycroft's 

"        " 

■939 

Gold   Lake 

•  925 

.885 

North  Fork  of  North  I 

Yuba ) 

South  Fork  of  North  ) 
Yuba S 

ii        (< 

.S64 

Hog  Canon      

"        " 

.864 

(    Gold     coarse,    in 

Bald   Mountain.  ...... 

" 

.926  to  936. 

"(      flakes. 

lim  Crow  Canon 

•  <        (< 

.926 

Niagara  Consolidated. 

a            11 

.916  to  .918 

Kelley 

Stanislaus  Co. 

.873  to  .899 
.926  to  .954 
.936  to  .951 
.895  to  .945 
.935  to  .950 

French  Hill 

Light  Claim 

• 

Johnson 

Sicard 

•934  to  .943 

*  Gold  very  fine  and  scaly  on  bed-rock, 
one  had  as  great  a  value  as  $230. 


Out  of  650  diamonds  found  in  this  deposit  only 


igo  APPENDIX. 

FINENESS  OF  PLACER  GOi^V)— Continued. 


Mine. 


Camptonville 

Galena  Hill 

Young  Hill 

Railroad  Hill 

Depot.  Hill 

Indian  Hill 

Oaks  Valley ) 

Dad's  Gulch j 

High  Point 

Oregon  Creek 

Pike  City 

Brush  Creek  Co 


Locality. 


Yuba  Co. 


Fineness. 


.930  to  .935 
.940 
940 
925 
925 
910 

925 

.890  to  .880 

.940 

.880 
.740 
.S20 


Remarks. 


According  to  King  in  "  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey  Report," 
Second  Annual  Report,  1880-81,  p.  379,  the  fineness  of 
specimens  ot  California  gold  as  determined  by  him  was  as 
follows : 


No.  of  Mines  examined. 

Locality. 

Fineness. 

5 

I 

5 
I 
2 
5 
5 
I 

15 

I 
10 

Butte  Co. 
Calaveras  Co. 
Del  Norte  Co. 
El  Dorado  Co. 
Humboldt  Co. 
Placer  Co. 
Plumas  Co. 
Shasta  Co. 
Siskiyou  Co. 
Stanislaus  Co. 
Trinity  Co. 

.900  to  .970 
.850  to  .960 
.875  to  .950 

.980 
.726  to  .940 
.784  to  .960 
.846  to  .936 

.885 

.749  to  .950 

.920 
.875  to  .927 

Total  ...51 

.726  to  .980 

Eighty  specimens  averaged  .883.6  fine  (p.  382).  Dana's 
"  Mineralogy  "  says :  "  California  gold  fineness  averages 
.875  to  .885.     Average,  .880." 


APPENDIX.  291 

King  places  the  average  fineness  of  gold  from  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  United  States  as  follows : 

California 883.6 

Colorado 820. 5 

Dakota 923.5 

Georgia 922.8 

Idaho 780.6 

Montana 895.1 

Oregon 872.7 

All  the  United  States 876 

Note. — The  larger  portion  of  this  table  was  compiled  from  Whitney's 
*•  Auriferous  Gravels.  ' 


INDEX. 


Abbey,  R.,  on  yield  of  French  Hill 
Claim,  Stanislaus  Co.,  Cal.,  table  li. 

Absorption,  gi,  130,  132,  T38. 

Abutments  for  dams,  97. 

Abyssinia,  16. 

Aconcagua,  Chili,  27. 

Adkins,  Consul,  cited,  19. 

Africa,  16,  17. 

Air-valves — see  Valves. 

Aji  River,  India,  17. 

Aktolik  River  and  Valley,  Siberia,  23, 
table  Hi. 

Alatri,  Italy,  158. 

Alder  Gulch,  Montana,  40. 

Allison  Ranch  Mine,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal., 
48. 

Altai,  Siberia,  20,  22,  table  lii. 

Alvarez,  Expedition  to  Gulf  of  Cali- 
fornia, 42. 

Amador  Canal  Company,  Cal. ,  tables 
xiii.,  XV.,  270. 

Amador  County,  Cal.,  66. 

Amalgam,  205,  249,  258,  266,  tables 
xlii.-xlvi. 

American  Hill,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal.,  49. 

American  Institute  of  Mining  Engi- 
neers, Transactions  of,  20,  70,  table 
lii. 

American  Mine,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal.,  180, 
234,  270,  table  1. 

American  River,  Cal.,  63,  65,  77,  95, 
238,  239,  268,  269. 

American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers, 
Transactions  of,  119,  120,  174,  176, 
213. 

Amgun  River,  Siberia,  25 

Amur  River,  Siberia,  20,  25,  table  lii. 


Ancient  alluvial  gold  deposit!,  Most, 
33.  67. 

Ancient  river  channels — see  River 
channels. 

Angles  of  repose  and  friction  of  em- 
bankment materials,  102. 

"  Annales  des  Mines,"  70. 

Appalachian  gold-fields,  39. 

Appendix  A,  281. 

Appendix  B,  289. 

Aquileia,  Italy.  15. 

Ararat.  Australia,  31,  table  lii. 

Area  of  available  mining  ground  in 
California,  76,  77. 

Area  of  wrought-iron  pipes,  161. 

Ariege  River,  France,  16. 

Arrow,  New  Zealand,  36. 

Asia  Minor,  15. 

Asiatic  Islands,  iS. 

Asphaltum  in  California,  72. 

Asphaltum  coating  for  iron  pipes,  167. 

Atchinsk,  Siberia,  20.  24,  table  lii. 

Atrato  River,  U.  S.  of  Colombia,  29. 

Attaki,  Egypt,  16. 

Attwood,  Melville,  quoted,  203. 

Auriferous  slate  formation  in  California, 

65. 
Australasia,  30-37. 
Australia,  S3,  205,  table  lii. 
Available  mining  ground  in  California, 

76.  77- 
Ayacucho,  Department  of,  Peru,  28. 
Ayakta  River,  Siberia,  24. 

Babb  Tunnel,   Timbuctoo,  Yuba  Co., 

Cal.,  232. 
Bachc,  Mt.,  Santa  Clara  Co.,  Cal.,  60. 


294 


INDEX. 


Back  Creek,  New  South  Wales,  33. 
Badger  Hill.  Nevada  Co. ,  Cal.,  71,  234. 
Baikal  Lake,  Siberia,  24. 
Bald  Mountain,  Sierra  Co.,   Cal.,  84, 

table  li. 
Ballarat,  Victoria,  Australia,   31,  table 

lii. 
Banks  of  ditches,  Slope  of,  138. 
Bar-mining,  47,  48,  51,  78,    79,  80. 
Barguzinsk,  Siberia,  20,  24. 
Barossa,  South  Australia,  34. 
Barrington,  New  South  Wales,  33. 
Basalt  overflow,  33,  34,  68. 
Baskir  District,  Siberia,  21. 
Batea,  202. 

Bath,  Placer  Co.,  Cal  ,  71. 
Bathurst  District,   New  South  Wales, 

32,  table  lii. 
Bazin,  cited,  127,  129. 
Beach-mining,  36,  78,  79. 
Bean's  Hill,  Plumas  Co.,  Cal.,  table  li. 
Bear   River,    Cal.,    77     95,   114,   140, 

239,  269. 
Bed-rock    Claim,    Nevada   Co.,   Cal., 

223. 
Bed-rock  riffles,  227. 
Bed-rock  Tunnel,  Sweetland,    Nevada 

Co.,  Cal.,  234. 
Beechworth    District,    Victoria,    Aus- 
tralia, 31,  253,  table  lii. 
Begert,  Father,  map  of  California,  45. 
Belgaum,  India,  17. 
Bellows,  W.  H.,  flume,  150. 
Belt  of  the  Coast  Ranges  of  California, 

53-61. 
Belt  of  the  Great  Valley  of  California, 

53,  54,  62,  66. 
Belt  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  California, 

53.  54,  63,  64. 
Belts,  Geological,  of  California,  53. 
Bench  claims,  78. 
Benches,  Washing  in,  246. 
Bendigo,  Victoria,  Australia,  34. 
Bendigo,  New  Zealand,  36. 
Bennet   Claim,    Calaveras   Co.,    Cal., 

table  li. 


Berenice,  Egypt,  16. 

Beresowska,  Siberia,  table  lii. 

Beriozofka  Mine,  Siberia,  22. 

Betmangla,  India,  18. 

Big  Canon  Creek,    Nevada  Co.,  Cal., 

103,  tables  v.,  vi. 
Bituminous  slate  formation  in  Califor- 
nia, 59. 
Black  Hills,  Dakota,  146. 
Black  sands,  79-88. 
Blake,  W.  P.,  cited,  16,  27. 
Blasting,  206-214. 
Block  riffles,  224,  234,   257,   259,  271, 

278. 
Blow-offs,  166. 
Blue  gravel,  87. 
Blue  Gravel   Mine,    Yuba  Co.,    Cal., 

232,  table  li. 
Blue  Lead   Mine,    Nevada  Co.,  Cal., 

table  li. 
Blue  Point  Mine,  Yuba  Co.,  Cal.,  207, 

232,  table  1. 
Blue   Tent  Mine,   Nevada  Co.,   Cal., 

95,  table  xiii.,  210,  273,  table  li. 
Bogoliubsky,  cited,  21,  25. 
Bogoslofsk,  Siberia,  21,  table  lii. 
Boise  Basin,  Idaho,  39. 
Bolivia,  27. 
Bombay,  India,  17. 
Bonanza  Mine,  Gold  Run,  Placer  Co., 

Cal,  I  So. 
Booming,  79,  81. 
Borneo,  18. 

Boston  Tunnel,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal.,  234. 
Bouyer  Ditch,  138,  140,  table  xiii. 
Bowman,  A. ,  on  yield  of  gravel  claims 

in  Yuba  Co.,  Cal.,  table  li. 
Bowman  reservoir  and   dam,   93,   95, 

loi,  103-112,  tables  v.,  vi. 
Box,  Distributing — see  Gates, 
Box,  Pressure — see  Pressure  box. 
Bracket  flume,  150. 
Brazil,  25,  202. 
British  Columbia,  37,  52. 
Broad  and  shallow  ditches,  137. 
Browne,  J.  Ross,  cited,  46,  66. 


INDEX. 


295 


Browne,  Ross  E.,  cited,  193. 
Browne,  Mt.,  New  South  Wales,  32. 
Brown's  Bar,  El  Dorado  Co.,  Cal.,  51. 
Buccaneers'  search  for  gold,  29. 
Buckets  for  hurdy-gurdy  wheels,   194- 

198. 
Buena  Vista,  Amador  Co.,  Cal.,  270. 
Bullock-Head     Creek,      New      South 

Wales,  33. 
Burehya  River,  Siberia,  25. 
Burke  County,  North  Carolina,  39. 
Buruma  River,  Siberia,  24. 
Butte  County,    Cal.,   49,  65,   66,    103, 

141,    142,  150,  tables  xiii.,  xv,,  172. 
Butte  Creek,  Butte  Co.,  Cal.,  239,  269. 

Cabarrus  County,  North  Carolina,  39. 

Cabrera,  Rodriguez,  43. 

Cajon  Pass,  San  Bernardino  Co.,  Cal., 

55- 
Calaveras  County,  Cal.,  66,  table  li. 
Calaveras  River.  Cal.,  77,  238,  270. 
California,    Available     area     of     pay 

gravel,  76,  77. 
California,  Dry  season  in,  go. 
California,  Geology  and  topography  of, 

53-69. 
California,  Gold  product  of,  42. 
California,    History    of    placer-mining 

in,  42-52. 
California,   Navigable  waters  affected 

by  hydraulic  mining,  23S. 
California   Mining  Company,    El   Do- 
rado Co.,  Cal.,  95,  table  xiii. 
Camanche,  Calaveras  Co.,  Cal.,  270. 
Campo  Seco,  Calaveras  Co.,  Cal.,  270. 
Cana,  U.  S.  of  Colombia,  29. 
Canada,  37,  table  lii. 
Canvas  hose,  49. 

Capital  invested  in  hydraulic  mines,  52. 
Caratal,  Venezuela.  28. 
Caravaya,  Peru,  27. 
Carboniferous  limestones  in  California, 

66. 
Caren,  Chili,  27. 
Cariboo,  British  Columbia,  38. 


Carpentaria,  Gulf  of,  Australia,  34. 
Cascade    Ditch,    Nevada    Co.,    Cal., 

ta  jle  xiii. 
Cassiar,  British  Columbia,  38. 
Castilla  del  Oro,   U.    S.  of  Colombia, 

29. 
Castlemaine,  District  of,  Victoria,  Aus- 
tralia, table  lii. 
Catchment  area,  93,  103,  105,  table  vi., 

240. 
Caving  banks,  245,  246. 
Cedar  Claim,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal.,  271. 
Cement  deposits  and  claims,    32,  35, 

36,  256,  257. 
Cemetery    Lead,    Victoria,    Australia, 

32. 
Cervo  del  Espiritu    Santo,    U.    S.    of 

Colombia,  29. 
Ceylon,  Island  of,  18. 
Chalk  Bluff  Ditch,  Nevada  Co.,    Cal., 

140,  table  xiii. 
Chaluma  River,  Peru,  28. 
Champaran  District,  India,  18. 
Champlain  period  in  California,  80. 
Channels,  Open — see  Open  channels. 
Charging  sluices,  244. 
Charleston,  New  Zealand,  36. 
Charter's  Towers,  Queensland,  34. 
Chaudiere  River,  Canada,  37. 
Cherokee,  Butte  Co.,   Cal.,  49,    tables 

xiii.,  XV.,  269. 
Chesnau  Claim,    Stanislaus  Co.,  Cal., 

72,  241,  274,  tables  xliv.,  1. 
Chezy,  cited,  128,  129. 
;  Chia-t'i-kou  Valley,  China,  19. 
Chico  Creek,  Butte  Co.,  Cal.,  236. 
Chile    Gulch    Mine,     Calaveras    Co., 

Cal.,  270. 
Chili,  26,  27. 
Chilian,  Chili,  27. 
China,  19,  20. 
China  Ditch,  Yuba  Co.,  Cal.,  138,  140, 

table  xiii. 
Chirimba  Valley,  Siberia,  23. 
Choco,  U.  S.  of  Colombia,  29. 
Christy,  S.  B.,  cited,  80. 


ig6 


INDEX. 


Cinnabar  in  California,  58. 
Ciudad  Bolivar,  Venezuela,  28. 
Clark's   Ditch,    Calaveras    Co.,     Cal., 

270. 
Classification  of  gravel  deposits,  78. 
Classification  of  mines  and  mining  ex- 
penses, 279. 
Classification  of  mining  operations,  78. 
Cleaning  up,  247,  248. 
Clear  Creek,  Shasta  Co.,  Cal.,  46. 
Clear  Lake,  California,  53,  56,  58,  60. 
Clough's  Gully,  New  South  Wales,  34, 

67. 
Clutha  River,  New  Zealand,  36. 
Coal  in  California,  58. 
Coal  measures,  Auriferous,  New  South 

Wales,  34,  67. 
Coal  tar,  coating  for  pipes,  167,  168. 
Coast  Ranges,  California,  Belt  of,  53- 

61. 
Coating  iron  pipes,  167,  168. 
Coefficients    of    discharge     of     water 

through  ditches,  131-134. 
Coefficients     of     discharge     of    water 

through  rectangular  orifices,  123. 
Coefficients  for  roughness,  129. 
Coloma,  El  Dorado  Co.,  Cal  ,  46. 
Colombia,  United  States  of,  29. 
Colorado  River,  45. 
Colorado,  State  of,  41,  81. 
Columbia  Hill,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal,   71, 

124,  234,  table  1. 
Concepcion,  U.  S.  of  Colombia,  29. 
Concow    reservoir,    Butte    Co.,     Cal., 

103. 
Cook  Bros'.  Ditch,  Calaveras  Co.,  Cal., 

270. 
Copiapo,  Chili,  26. 
Copper  veins  in  California,  61. 
Coquimbo,  Chili,  27. 
Cortez,  Conquest  of  Mexico,  31. 
Cossack  District,  Siberia,  21. 
Cost  of  dams,  103,  109,  112. 

"     ditches,  139-142,  153-156. 
"     electric  light,  246. 
"     flumes,  153-156. 


Cost  of  pipes,  169,  170. 

"     prospecting  work,  88. 

"     reservoirs,  93. 

"     sluices,  232-235. 

"     tunnels,  218,  233,  234. 

"     undercurrents,  232. 

"     working,  275-277,  tables  xlii.- 
lii. 
Cosumnes  River,  Cal.,  77,  238,  270. 
Cotta,  B.  v  ,  cited,  70. 
Coy  Diggings,  Victoria,  Australia,  32. 
Coyote  Hill  Ditch,  Nevada  Co., Cal. ,47. 
Coxe,  E.  B.,  cited,  119. 
Cradle — see  Rocker. 
Craig.  R.  R.,  on  discharge  pipes,   49, 

50,  180,  181. 
Crawford.  J.  J.,  cited,  124,  table  1. 
Crawford's    Claim,    El    Dorado    Co., 

Cal.,  table  1. 
Cretaceous  strata  in  California,  54,  58, 

59,  64,  66. 
Creviceing,  248. 

Crooked  Lake,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal,,  104. 
Crosiner,  cited,  27. 
Curves  of  flumes,  144. 
Curves  of  sluices,  218,  227-231. 

Dahlonega,  Georgia,  39. 

Dakota  Territory,  41,  146. 

Dams,  90-118,  239. 

Dams,  Wing,  48. 

Dana,  Jas.  D.,  cited,  45,  80. 

D'Arcy,  cited,  129. 

Dardanelles  and  Oro  Mine,  Placer  Co., 

Cal.,  208.  209,  table  li. 
Darfur,  Egypt,  17. 

Dargo  District,  Victoria,  Australia,  32. 
Darien,  Isthmus  of,  29. 
Davidson  County,  N.  Carolina,  39. 
Debris — see  Tailings. 
Debris  dams,  112-118,  239,  240. 
Debris  in  streams,  238-240. 
Deep-placer  mines,  48,  78,  82. 
Deep  tunnels,  First,  in  California,   51. 
Deer  Creek  Tunnel,  Yuba  Co.,   Cal., 

232. 


INDEX. 


297 


Deer  Lodge  County,  Montana,  40. 

Deflector,  50,  183,  184. 

Delaney  Claim,   Stanislaus  Co.,  Cal., 

228,  265,  table  1. 
Depressions,  Rich  pay  in,  72 
Derricks,  185. 

Devonian  deposits  in  Canada,  37. 
Dharwar,  India,  17. 
Diablo,  Mount,  Cal.,  56,  58,  59,  60. 
DibuUa  River,  U.  S.  of  Colombia,  29. 
Dictator,  Hoskins',  50,  182. 
Diodorus,  cited,  16. 
Discharge  pipe — see  Nozzle, 
Discovery   of    gold   in    California   by 

Marshall,  46. 
Distributing  box — see  Gate. 
Distributing  pipe,  158. 
Distributing  reservoirs,  93. 
Distribution  of  gold  in  gravel  deposits, 

68-75. 

Distribution  of  gold  in  sluices,  232, 
252-259,  260-262. 

Ditches,  47,  130,  135-157,  table  xiii. 

Ditin,  Siberia,  table  Hi. 

Diubkosh  Valley,  Siberia,  table  lii. 

Dogtown,  Calaveras  Co  ,  Cal.,  270. 

Dona  Ana  County,  New  Mexico,  40. 

Doniier  Pass,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal.,  64. 

Dormentez,  Castillo,  43. 

Dougherty  Ditch,  Calaveras  Co.,  Cal., 
270. 

Douro  River,  Portugal,    16. 

Downieville,  Sierra  Co  ,  Cal.,  47. 

Drainage  of  the  Great  Valley  of  Cali- 
fornia, 62. 

Drake,  Sir  Francis,  43. 

Dredging  machines,  36. 

Dritfield  River,  South  Australia,  35. 

Drift-mines,  51,  71,  72,  78,  S2-84. 

Drift>,  Prospect.  83,  87,  88. 

Drybread  Diggings,  New  Zealand,  36. 

Dry  Creek — see  Table  Mountain  Creek. 

Dry  Creek,  Amador  Co.,  Cal.,  270. 

Dry  Creek  No.  2,  Cal.,  239,  269. 

Dry  Creek  Claim,  Shasta  Co.,  Cal., 
table  li. 


Dry  season  in  California,  qo. 

Dry-stone  dams,  loi,  103. 

Dry-washing,  79 

Dump,  86,  240-243. 

Dutch    Flat,    Placer   Co.,    Cal.,    140, 

table  xiii.,  239,  268,  271. 
Duty   of    the   miner's   inch,    268-274, 

277,  278,  tables  xl.-xlvi. 

Earthen  dams,  99. 

Earthenware  pipes,  159. 

Echunga  District,  South  Australia,  35. 

Eckart,  W.  R.,  cited,  122. 

Egypt,  16.  17. 

Eight-Mile      Diggings,      New     South 

Wales,  33. 
Eisenbeck  Claim.    Nevada  Co.,   Cal., 

263,  264. 
Ekaterinburg  Siberia,  21. 
Elbows  for  pipes,  165. 
El  Dorado  Company's  Ditch,  El  Do- 
rado Co.,  Cal  ,  138,  table  xiii. 
El    Dorado   County,     Cal.,    63,    124, 

tables  1.,  li. 
El  Dorado  Reservoir,  El  Dorado  Co., 

Cal.,  95. 
Electricity,  Firing  by,  213,  214. 
Electric  light,  246. 
Elevator,  Hydraulic,  36. 
Embankment  materials  and  slope,  102. 
Empire     Claim,    Nevada     Co.,    Cal., 

table  li. 
Empire  Hill,  Yuba  Co.,  Cal.,  table  li. 
Empire  Mill,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal.,  190. 
Empire  Reservoir,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal. ,94. 
England,  92. 
English  Dam  and   Reservoir,  Nevada 

Co.,  Cal.,  93,  95,  loi. 
English  Tunnel,  Badger  Hill,    Nevada 

Co..  Cal.,  234. 
Enterprise   Mine,    Nevada  Co.,    Cal., 
!      20S,  234,  table  li. 
!  Erosion  of  material  in  running  water, 
j      236,  272. 

Ethiopia.  l6. 
1  Eucumbene  River,  N.  South  Wales,  33. 


298 


INDEX. 


Eureka  Lake  and  Yuba  Canal  Com- 
pany, 77,  93,  95,  133,  138,  139,  table 
xiii.,  234. 

Euxine  Sea,  Russia,  15. 

Evaporation,  91,  135,  143. 

Excavating  ditches,  137,  154-156. 

Excelsior  Ditch,  Yuba  Co.,  Cal.,  138, 
140. 

Excelsior  Reservoir,  Yuba  Co.,  Cal.,  94. 

Explosives,  154,  210,  213,  233,  234, 
table  xliii. 

Fale's  Hill,  Plumas  Co.,  Cal.,  table  1. 

Fall  Creek  Reservoir  and  Dam,  Ne- 
vada Co.,  Cal,,  104. 

Fanning,  J.  T.,  cited,  96,  100,  102, 
119. 

Farrell  Tunnel,  Columbia  Hill,  Ne- 
vada Co.,  Cal.,  234. 

Faucherie  Reservoir  and  Dam,  Nevada 
Co.,  Cal.,  93,  95,  104. 

Feather  River,  Cal.,  47,  63,  77,  95, 
238,  239,  269. 

Feedpipe,  158,  178-180. 

Fifteen-Mile  Diggings,  New  South 
Wales,  33. 

Filling  pipes,  168,  178. 

Fineness  of  gold  from  California  mines, 
289-291. 

Firing  of  mines,  213,  214. 

Fisher's  Hydraulic  Chief  or  Knuckle- 
joint,  50,  181. 

Flat  deposits,  78. 

Flow  of  water  in  open  channels,  119, 
127-130. 

Flow  of  water  through  circular  pipes, 
174-176. 

Floyd  County,  Virginia,  39. 

Flumes,  135-157,  218. 

Fomiha  River,  Siberia,  22. 

Forbes,  James  Alexander,  45. 

Forbes,  J.  R.,  cited,  205. 

Fordyce  Reservoir  and  Dam,  Nevada 
Co.,  Cal.,  95,  loi. 

Forest  Hill,  Placer  Co.,  Cal.,  51,  71, 
208,  table  li. 


Formosa,  Island  of,  18. 

Formula  for  discharge  of  water  over 
weirs,  120. 

Formula  for  flow  of  water  in  canal, 
Kutter's,  129. 

Formula  for  flow  of  water  through  cir- 
cular pipes,  178. 

Formula  for  flow  of  water  through 
ditches  in  California,  133. 

Formula  for  thickness  of  iron  for  pipes, 
table  XV. 

Formula  for  velocity  of  hurdy-gurdy 
wheels,  195,  196. 

Fort  Hall,  Idaho,  40. 

Fort  Tejon,   Kern  Co.,   Cal.,   53,   55, 

59>  61  • 
Fossils  and  fossil  wood  in  California, 

67. 
Foster,  C.  Le  Neve,  cited,  28. 
Foundation  for  dams,  94. 
France,  16,  92. 
Francis,  J.  B.,  cited,  iig. 
Franklin  Mine,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal.,  271. 
Frazer  River,  British  Columbia,  38,  52. 
Fredenburr  wheel,  igi. 
French  Corral,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal.,  table 

XV.,  190,   226,   232,   233,   234,  256— 

258,  261,  264,  tables  1.,  li. 
French  Hill,  Stanislaus  Co.,  Cal.,  72, 

242,  274,  tables  xlii.,  1.,  li. 
French  Reservoir,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal.,  93. 
Fresno  County,  Cal.,  65. 
Friction    of     embankment    materials, 

102. 
Fteley  and  Stearns,  cited,  119,  120. 

Gabriel  Gully,  New  Zealand,  36. 
Gale,  J.  M.,  cited,  table  xxii. 
Gardner's    Point,    Plumas   Co.,    Cal.,, 

252,  267,  table  li. 
Garhwal  River,  India,  18. 
Garnett,  Louis  A.,  281-287. 
Gates  for  pipes,  158,  178. 
Gates,  Waste,  for  ditches,  133,  136. 
Gates,  Waste,  for  flumes,  145,  154. 
Gauge  for  reservoirs,  gj. 


INDEX. 


299 


Gavilan  Mountains,  Cal.,  56,  60. 

Geerts,  Dr.,  cited,  19. 

Geological  formation  at    La    Grange, 

Stanislaus  Co.,  Cal.,  68. 
Geology  of  California,  53-69. 
Georgia,  State  of,  39. 
Giant,  Hydraulic  and  Little,  50,  182, 

183. 
Gilbert  River,  Canada,  37. 
Glacial  drifts  containing  gold,  37. 
Glacial  period  in  California,  80. 
Glen  Beatson  Ditch,  Butte  Co.,   Cal., 

142. 
Globe  Monitor,  50,  180,  181. 
Gloucester,  New  South  Wales,  33. 
Gmelin,  cited,  20. 
Gobi,  China,  18, 
Godfrey,  J.  H.,  cited,  20. 
Gold   distribution   in  gravel    deposits, 

70-75. 
Gold  distribution  in  sluices,   232,  252, 

259,  260-262. 
Gold,  Fineness  of,  289-291. 

"      Loss  of,  263-267. 

"      pan,  202. 

"      product — ste  Product  of  gold. 

"      quartz  in  veins  in  California,  48, 
61,  65. 
Gold  Bluff,  Klamath  Co.,  Cal.,  48,  79. 
Gold  Creek,  Montana,  40. 
Gold  Lake,  Sierra  Co.,  Cal.,  47. 
Gold  Run,  Placer  Co.,  Cal.,  208,  271, 

273,  table  1. 
Gomez,  Admiral,  43. 
Goochland  County,  Virginia,  39. 
Goodyear,  \V.  A.,  cited,  table  li. 
Goose  Neck,  50,  180. 
Gopher  Hill,  Nevada  Co. ,  Cal. ,  taT^le  li. 
Gorbilka  River,  Siberia,  24. 
Grades  of  ditches,  137-142,  156,  table 

xiii. 
Grades  of  flumes,  143,  table  xiii. 
Grades  of  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin 

Rivers,  62. 
Grades  of  sluices,   218,  227-231,   259, 

266,  274,  277,  278,  tables  xlii.-xlix. 


Grades  of  tunnels,  232,  234. 

Granite  in  California,  54,  56,  57,  60, 
64,  65. 

Grant  County,  New  Mexico,  40. 

Grass  Flat,  Plumas  Co.,  Cal.,  2i8. 

Grass-roots,  Gold  in  the,  71. 

Grass  Valley,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal.,  igi. 

Gravel,  Minimum  pay  in,  76. 

Great  Belts  of  California,  53. 

Great  Pit  River,  Siberia^  23. 

Great  quartz  vein  of  California,  65. 

Great  Valley  of  California,  53,  54,62,66. 

Great  Western  Mine,  Victoria,  Aus- 
tralia, 31. 

Green  P'lat,  Plumas  Co.,  Cal.,  table  1. 

Green  Mountains,  New  England,  39. 

Griffis,  cited,  20. 

Grimm,  J.,  cited,  70. 

Grizzly  Hill,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal..  71. 

Ground  sluices,  247. 

Ground-sluicing,  32,  33,  35,  37,  79,  81. 

Guasco,  Chili,  27. 

Guayana,  State  of.  South  America,  28, 

Guilford  County,  North  Carolina,  39. 

Guinea,  Africa,  17. 

Gulch  diggings,  51,  78. 

Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  Australia,  34. 

Gympie  District,  Queensland,  Austra- 
lia, 34. 

Hagen,  cited,  129. 

Hague,  J.  D.,  cited,  20,  77,  93,  table 

xiii.,  234,  table  li. 
Hakluyt's  account    of   the   voyage  of 

Sir  Francis  Drake,  43. 
Hala  Mountains,  China,  19. 
Hall,  W.  H. — see  State  Engineer. 
Harcourt,  Vernon,  cited,  92. 
Harriman    and   Taylor   Mines,    Placer 

Co  ,  Cal.,  208. 
Hartt,  C.  F.,  cited,  26,  70. 
Hauraki  Gulf,  New  Zealand,  36. 
Hays,  Sir  Hector,  cited,  20. 
Hedwick's  Claim,  Calaveras  Co.,  Cal., 

table  li. 
Helps,  cited,  30. 


300 


INDEX. 


Hendel,    Chas.,    on   yield    of    certain  I 

gravel  deposits  at  La  Porte,  Plumas  : 

Co.,  Cal.,  table  li. 
Hendricks  Ditch,  Butte  Co.,  Cal.,  138, 

141,  table  xiii. 
Herodotus,  cited,  15,  17. 
Higham,  Thos.,  cited,  119. 
Hill  Claims,  78. 
Hill  Top  Mine,  Calaveras  Co.,  Cal., 

77.  270. 
History  of  gold-washing,  15-41. 
History  of  placer-mining  in  California, 

42-52. 
Hiuen-thsang,  cited,  18. 
Holt,  H.  F.,  cited,  19. 
Hopoota.,  China,  19. 
Hose,  Canvas  and  rawhide,  49. 
Hoskins,  R.,  on  discharge  pipes,    50, 

182,  184. 
Huanca-huanca  River,  Peru,  2P. 
Humboldt,  Alexander  von,  cited,  18,25. 
Humbug   Cafion,    Nevada   Co.,    Cal,, 

234. 
Humphreys    and   Abbot,    cited,     119, 

127,  128. 
Hu-Nan,  Province  of,  China,  19. 
Hunt,  T.  Sterry.  cited,  88. 
Hurdy-gurdy  wheels,  185-202. 
Hydraulic  Chief  or  Knuckle-joint,  50, 

181. 
Hydraulic  elevator,  36. 
Hydraulic  Giant    183. 
Hydraulicking — :<ee   IVasking. 
Hydraulic  mining,  definition,  84. 
Hydraulic  mining  veisus  drift-mining, 

84. 

Iburi,  Province  of,  Japan,  table  Hi. 
Idaho  Mine,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal.,  190. 
Idaho  Territory,  39,  52,  81. 
Ignition,  Simultaneous,  of  mines,  222. 
Impact  wheels — see  Hurdy-gurdy. 
Inch,  Miner's,  121-134,  268-274. 
India,  17,  94. 

Indiana    Hill,    Placer   Co.,    Cal.,    71, 
table  li. 


Indian  Archipelago,  18. 
Indications  of  gold  in  gravel,  87. 
Inverted  siphons — see  Siphon. 
Investigation,  Preliminary,  87-89. 
Iowa  Hill,  Placer  Co.,  Cal.,  76. 
Irish  Hill  Mine,  Amador  Co.,  Cal ,  270. 
Irkutsk,  Siberia,  20,  24. 
Iron  pipe,  49,  15^-176. 
Island  Lake  Dam  and  Reservoir,  Ne- 
vada Co.,  Cal.,  95,  104. 
Italy,  15,  158. 

Jack's  Hill  Claim,  Plumas  Co.,  Cal., 
table  li. 

Jackson,  L.  D'A.,  cited,  119. 

Jackson  Creek,  Amador  Co.,  Cal.,  270. 

Jack-on  Lake,  Dam  and  Reservoir, 
Nevada  Co.,  Cal.,  95,  104. 

Jacobs,  cited,  16,  18,  20. 

Jamestown,  Tuolumne  Co. ,  Cal.,  51. 

Japan,  19,  table  lii. 

Japan,  Sea  of,  25. 

Jaragua,  Brazil,  70. 

Jasper  rocks  in  California,  57,  58,  61. 

Jassin  River,  Italy,  16. 

Jernegan,  J.  L.,  cited,  tables  xlii.,  1. 

Jesuits  in  California,  44. 

Johnson  Claim,  Patricksville,  Stanis- 
laus Co.,  Cal.,  tables  xlv.,  1. 

Johnson's  Ditch,  Amador  Co.,  Cal., 
270. 

Johnston  Claim,  Calaveras  Co.,  Cal., 
table  li. 

Joints  of  iron  pipes,  table  xiii.,  163- 
165. 

Jordan  Ditch,  270. 

Juniper  Mine,  270. 

Jurassic  strata  in  California,  54,  64,  68. 

Kaladgi  District,  India,  17. 
Kalami  River,  Siberia,  23,  table  lii. 
Kansas    Claim,     Nevada    Co.,    Cal., 

table  li. 
Kansk,  Siberia,  20,  24,  table  lii. 
Kashgar  District,  Siberia,  21. 
Kattywar  District,  India,  17. 


INDEX. 


Wl 


Kawarau  River,  New  Zealand,  36. 
Kelly    Claim,   La   (Grange,    Stanislaus 

Co.,  Cal,  242,  274,  table  1. 
Kern  Co.,  51. 
Kern  Lake,  Cal.,  53,  56. 
Ke  n  River,  Cal.,  64,  66. 
Kettles.  Amalgam,  205. 
Kiandra  District,   New   South  Wales, 

33- 
King's  River,  Cal ,  64. 
Kinsha-Kiang  Kiver,  China,  19. 
Kirkvvood,  J.  P.,  cited,  table  xxii. 
Kirwin,  China,  19. 
Kizil-togoi,  Turkistan,  22. 
Klamath  River,  Cal  ,  47,  66,  79,  238. 
Knight's  Ferry,  Cal.,  270. 
Knight  Wheel,  191,  192. 
Koh  R'.ver,  India,  18. 
Kordofan,  Egypt,  17. 
Kudo  District,  Japan,  table  Hi. 
Kuen-Lun  Mountains,  China,  18,  19. 
Kumaun  River,  India,  18. 
Kutter,  W.  R.,  cited,  119,  129,  130; 
Kuznetsof,  cited,  22. 
Kwei-Chow,  China,  19. 

Lachlan  District,   New   South  Wales, 

32,  table  lii. 
La  Grange,  Stanislaus  Co.,  Cal.,  68, 

75,    124,    125,   132,  138,    144,   table 

xiii.,  168,  177,   223,   226,   229,   241, 

263,  270,  274,  276,  277,  tables  xlii.- 

xlvi.,1.,  li. 
La  Ligua.  Chili,  27. 
Lancha   Plana,    Calaveras   Co.,    Cal., 

270. 
La  Porte,  Plumas  Co.,  Cal.,  table  li. 
Larkin,  Thos.  O.,  cited,  45. 
Las  Casas,  cited,  30. 
Lassen's  Peak,   Lassen  Co.,   Cal.,  63, 

66. 
Lava  overflow,   33,  34,  41,  65,  ,66,  67, 

63. 
Lead  joints  for  pipes,  163. 
Le  Conte,  Prof.  Jos.,  cited,  271. 
Leech  River,  British  Columbia,  38. 


Lena.  Basin  of  the,  Siberia.  20,  24. 

Lewis  and  Ciarke  Co.,  Montana,  40. 

Leydenburg  District,  Africa,  17. 

Life  of  blocks,  225. 

Light  Claim,  La  Grange,  Stanislaus^ 
Co.,  Cal.,  74,  274,  277,  tables  I.,  li. 

Light  Claim,  Patricksville,  Stanislaus 
Co.,  Cal.,  72,  74,  242,  277.  table  xliii. 

Light  for  hydraulic  claims,  246. 

Limestones,  Carboniferous,  in  Califor- 
nia, 66. 

Little  Giant,  50,  182. 

Little  York  Company,  Placer  Co.,  Cal., 
114. 

Livermore  Valley,  Alameda  Co.,  Cal., 
60. 

Lock.  AG.,  cited,  19,  20,  30,  38,  table 
lii. 

Logan,  W.  E.,  cited,  table  lii. 

Longitudinal  riffles,  227. 

Long  Tom,  47,  204. 

Los  Angele«,  Cal.,  45,  57,  59,  60. 

Loss  of  gold,  263-267. 

Loss  of  quicksilver,  244,  263-267. 

Lou-tsze-Kiang  River,  China,  19. 

Lower  California,  42,  44. 

Lumber  for  flumes,  149,  150,  153-157. 

Lydia,  Asia  Minor,  15. 

Macy,  C.  F..  50. 

Madison  County,  Montana,  40. 

Madras,  India,  17. 

Magnetic  iron  sands,  79,  88. 

Mahratta,  Province  of,  India,  17. 

Malabar,  India,  17. 

Malakoff  Nevada  Co.,  Cal.,  73,  SS,  S9, 

table  XV.,  179,  246. 
Malineca,  U.  S.  of  Colombia,  29. 
Maneero,  New  South  Wales,  33. 
Manzanita  Mine,   Sweetland,  Nevada 

Co.,  Cal.,  iSo,  211,  226,  234,  256, 

25S,  260,  264,  table  1. 
Maori  bottom,  New  Zealand,  36. 
Maradabad  District,  India,  18. 
Marco  Polo,  quoted,  19. 
Marengo,  Queensland,  34. 


302 


INDEX. 


Marine  formations,  California,  65,  66. 

Mariposa  County,  Cal.,  47,  64,  65,  66. 

Marlow  Reservoir,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal., 
94. 

Marshall  discovers  gold  in  California, 
46. 

Marsinsk,  Siberia,  table  lii. 

Maryborough  District,  Victoria,  Aus- 
tralia, table  lii. 

Masonry  darns,  97. 

Mattison,  E.  E.,  first  uses  the  hydraulic 
method,  48. 

Mawe,  John,  on  Brazil,  70,  71. 

McCarty's  Claim,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal., 
table  1. 

McDoran's  Claim,  Plumas  Co.,  Cal., 
table  li. 

McDowell  County,  North  Carolina,  39. 

McGillivray,  Jos.,  49,  51,  table  li. 

Meadow  Lake  Dam  and  Reservoir, 
Nevada  Co.,  Cal.,  95,  104. 

Meagher  County,  Montana,  40. 

Measurement  of  snowfall — see  Snow- 
fall. 

Measurement  of  water — see  Water. 

Mechanical  appliances.  Various,  185- 
205. 

Mecklenburg  County,  North  Carolina, 

39- 
Mendell,   Lieut.-Col.  Geo.   H.,   cited, 

77,    113,    114,    118,    211,    239,    240, 

268,  276. 
Mendocino,  Cape,  43,  59,  79. 
Mendoza,  Viceroy,  43. 
Merced  River,  Cal.,  64,  236,  238. 
Mercury — see  Quicksilver. 
Messerer,  Jos.,  cited,  276,  table  1. 
Metamorphism  of  rocks  in  California, 

54.  57- 
Methods  of  mining  gold  placers,  78-86. 
Mexico,  30. 
Miask  District,  Siberia,  21,   72,  table 

lii. 
Middle    Lake    Dam    and    Reservoir, 

Nevada  Co.,  Cal.,  95,  104. 
Miller's  Flat,  New  Zealand,  36. 


Milton  Mining  Company,  Nevada  Co., 

Cal.,  93,  94,  95,  loi,  104,  124,  131, 

132,  133.  134.  138. 139.  146,  153-156, 

table  xiii.,  180,  211,  234. 
Mina  Real,  Cana,  U.  S.  of  Colombia, 

29. 
Miner's  ditch,  table  xiii. 
Miner's  inch,    121-134,   268-274,  277, 

278,  tables  xlii.-xlvi. 
Minimum  pay  yield  of  gravel,  76. 
Mining  methods-  see  Methods. 
Minusinsk,  Siberia,  20,  24,  table  lii. 
Miocene  Mining  Company.  Butte  Co., 

Cal.,  142,  150.  151. 
Miocene  strata  in  California,  58,  59,60, 

61. 
Mission  in  Lower  California,  First,  44. 
Mission  in  Upper  California,  First,  44. 
Mitchell  River,  Victoria,  Australia,  32. 
Mocupia  Valley,  Venezuela,  28. 
Mojave    Desert,  San  Bernardino  Co., 

Cal.,  60. 
Mokelumne  Hill,  Calaveras  Co.,  Cal., 

270. 
Mokelumne  River,  Cal.,  77,  115,  118, 

23S,  239,  240,  268,  269,  270,  276. 
Molyneux  River,  New  Zealand,  36. 
Monitor,  Globe,  50,  iSo,  iSi. 
Monitor  Hydraulic  Machine,  183,  184. 
Montana  Territory,  40,  81. 
Monte  Rey,  Count  de,  43. 
Monterey,    Town   of,    Monterey   Co., 

Cal.,  45. 
Monterey  Bay,  Cal.,  44,  56,  57. 
Monterey  District,  Cal.,  44,  45. 
Montgomery  County,  Virginia,  39. 
Montreal  placers.  New  South  Wales, 

32. 
Mooney's  Flat,  Yuba  Co.,  Cal.,  232. 
Moore,  Joseph,  cited,  170. 
Moore's  Flat  pipe,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal., 

table  XV. 
Mother-iode  of  California,  65. 
Mudgee   District,   New  South  Wales, 

32. 
Munroe,  H.  S.,  cited,  20,  70,  table  lii. 


INDEX. 


303 


Murchison,  Sir  Roderick,  cited,  70,  71. 
Murojnaia  River,  Siberia,  23,  table  Hi. 
Murray  &  Dougherty's  Ditch,  Calave- 
ras Co.,  Cal.,  270. 
Musa  Valley,  Japan,  19,  table  lii. 
Mysore,  India,  18. 

Naginah,  India,  18. 

Nagler  Claim,   El   Dorado  Co.,  Cal., 

table  li. 
Narrow  and  deep  ditches,  137. 
Naseby,  New  Zealand,  36. 
Navigable  waters  of  California  affected 

by  hydraulic  mining.  238. 
Nebraska   Claim,    Nevada   Co.,   Cal., 

table  li. 
Nelson  District,  New  Zealand,  35. 
Nepal,  India,  18. 

Nerchinsk,  Siberia,  20,  35,  table  lii. 
Nevada  County,  Cal.,  48,  49,  50,  63, 

71,  72,  73,  93,  124,   145,  160,  204, 

207,  208,  210,  211,   223,  226,  234, 

258,  271,  tables  1.,  li. 
Nevada,  State  of,  160,  172. 
New  Almaden,  Santa  Clara  Co.,  Cal., 

174. 
New  Chum  Hill  Diggings,  New  South 

Wales,  33. 
Newchwang.  China,  19. 
New  Claim,    Patricksville,    Stanislaus 

Co.,  Cal.,  table  1. 
New  England,  39. 
New  Hampshire,  State  of,  39. 
New  Kelly  Claim,  Stanislaus  Co.,  Cal., 

69,  265,  table  1. 
New  Light  Claim,  Patricksville,  Stanis- 
laus Co.,  Cal.,  table  1. 
New  Mexico,  40. 
New  South  Wales,  30,  32,  67,  70,  table 

lii. 
New  Westminster,  British  Columbia, 38. 

New  Zealand,  35. 

Nijneudinsk,  Siberia,  20,  24;  table  lii. 
Nile  Valley,  Egypt,  16. 
Nine-Mile  Diggings,  New  South  Wales, 
33- 


Noiba  River,  Siberia,  22. 

North  Bloomfield,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal.. 
73,  86,  88,  89,  93,  94,  95,  103,  104, 
tables  v.,  vi.,  124,  126,  131,  132,  134, 
13S1  I45i  153.  tables  xiii.,  xv.,  169. 
174,  177,  table  xxii.,  179,  185,  221, 
226,  227,  figs.  67-69,  234,  244,  246, 
252,  253,  263,  264,  274,  276,  278, 
table  1. 

North  Carolina,  State  of,  39. 

Notch,  Triangular,  Discharge  of  water 
through,  120,  122. 

Notre  Dame  Mountains,  Canada,  37. 

Nova  Scotia,  37. 

Nozzles,  49,  158-184,  189,  19c. 

Nubia,  16 

Nuggety    Gully,    Victoria,     Australia, 

32. 
Nunez,  Alvarez,  Expedition  to  Gulf  of 
California,  42. 

Ogilvy's  "  America,"  45. 

Ogne  Valley,  Siberia,  table  lii. 

Okhotsk  Sea,  25. 

Oldest  alluvial  gold  deposits  known, 

33.  67. 

Olekma  River,  Siberia,  24. 

Olekminsk,  Siberia,  20,  24,  table  lii. 

Olizal,  Monterey  District,  45. 

OUonokon  River,  Siberia,  24. 

Omega  and  Blue  Tent  Reservoirs,  Ne- 
vada Co.,  Cal.,  95 

Open  channels.  Flow  of  water  in,  119, 
127. 

Opening  a  claim,  217. 

Oreo  River,  Italy,  16. 

Oregon,  State  of,  45,  66,  79. 

Oregon  Gulch  Ditch,  Trinity  Co.,  Cal., 

Orenburg  District,  Siberia,  table  Hi. 
Orifices,  Discharge  of  water  through, 

119-123. 
Orinoco  River,  Venezuela,  29. 
Osborne's  Flat,  Victoria,  Australia,  73. 
Oshinia  Province,  Japan,  table  Hi. 
Otago  District,  New  Zealand,  35. 


304 


INDEX. 


Pactolus  Mine,  Timbuctoo,  Yuba  Co., 
Cal.,  232,  table  li. 

Pactolus  River,  15. 

Palmas,  Cape,  Liberia,  Africa,  17. 

Palo  Escrito  Hills,  Cal.,  56. 

Pampluna  Province,  U.  S.  of  Colom- 
bia, 29. 

Pan,  The  gold  or  miner's,  202. 

Paragon  Mine,  Placer  Co.,  Cal.,  208, 
227,  table  li. 

Parinacochas  Province,  Peru,  28. 

Park  Canal  and  Mining  Company's 
Ditch,  table  xiii. 

Park  Canal  and  Mining  Company's 
Inch,  124. 

Patricksville,  Stanislaus  Co.,  Cal.,  72, 
73.  74.  132.  228,  241,  270,  tables 
xliii.-xlvi.,  1. 

Pay  gravel.  Minimum  yield,  76. 

Payson,  Lieut.  A.  W.,  cited,  270. 

Paz  Soldan,  cited,  28. 

Peace  River,  British  Columbia,  38. 

Pearce  City,  Idaho,  39. 

Peel  District,  new  South  Wales,  32 
table  Hi. 

Pelton  wheel,  191-193,  198-202. 

Penchenga  River,  Siberia,  24. 

Percolation,  92. 

Perkins,  H.  C,  cited,  50,  183,  tables 
1.,  li. 

Perm  District,  Siberia,  table  lii. 

Peru,  27. 

Peschanka  Mine,  Ural  Mountains,  21. 

Petorca,  Chili,  27. 

Petroleum  in  California,  59. 

Pettee,  W.  H.,  cited,  75,  tables  1.,  li. 

Philippine  Islands,  18. 

Philippsburg,  on  the  Rhine,  16. 

Plirygia,  15. 

Piede  Cuesta  Mine,  U.  S.  of  Colom- 
bia. 29. 

Piety  Hill  Mine,  Shasta  Co.,  Cal., 
table  li. 

Piling  for  dams,  96. 

Pillarcitos  Dam  and  Reservoir,  San 
Mateo  Co.,  Cal.,  99,  104. 


Pine  Grove  Reservoir,  95. 

Pioneer  Mine,  Plumas  Co.,  Cal.,  2i8r 

Pioneer     Tunnel,    Sierra    Co.,    Cal., 

table  li. 
Pipe,  49,  158-1S4,  tables  xlii.-xlvi. 
Piquituirin  River,  Peru,  28. 
Pittsburg  Mine,  Sucker  Flat,  Yuba  Co., 

Cal.,  232,  table  li. 
Placer  County,  Cal.,  51,  63.  71,  75,  76, 

83,  84,  227,  table  1. 
Placerville,  Placer  Co. ,  Cal.,  33. 
Platinum  in  beach  sands,  79. 
Pliny,  cited,  16,  82. 
Pliocene  gravels  in  California,  54,  60, 

67. 
Pliocene   gravels   in   South   Australia, 

31- 
Pliocene  gravels  in  Victoria,  Australia, 

31.  32. 
Plumas  County,   Cal.,  63,  65,  66,  83, 

218,  tables  1.,  li. 
Po  River,  Italy,  16. 
Podkamenny  Tungusska  River,  Siberia, 

22. 
Polar  Star  Mine,  Placer  Co.,  Cal.,  71, 

75,  179,  239,  271,  table  li. 
Pond  Mine,  Placer  .Co.,  Cal  ,  table  li. 
Post-pliocene  in  California,  68. 
Post-tertiary  in  California,  64. 
Powder,  Blasting,  210,  212,   233,  234, 

278. 
Preliminary  work  in  mining,  87-89. 
Prescott,  W.  II.,  cited,  30. 
Preservation  of  iron  pipes,  167. 
Pressure  on  pipes,  table  xv.,  174,  tables 

xlii.-xlvi. 
Pressure  box,  176,  177. 
Product  of  gold  : 
Africa,  17. 

Amur  basin,  Siberia,  25. 
Bolivia,  27. 
Brazil,  26. 

British  Columbia,  38. 
California,  42,  28S. 
Caratal  Mines,  Venezuela,  38. 
Chili,  27. 


INDEX. 


305 


Product  of  gold — continued  : 

Idaho,  39. 

Japan,  20. 

Montana,  40. 

New  Granada,  30, 

New  South  Wales,  32. 

Peru,  27,  28. 

Russia,  21. 

SavagUkon  Mines,  Siberia,  23. 

Verkneudinsk  District,  Siberia,  24. 

Victoria,  Australia,  30. 

Prospect  drifts,  83,  87,  88. 

shafts,  87,  88,  8q. 

"        tunnels,  83. 
Prospecting,  Cost  at  North  Bloomfield, 

88. 
Puddle,  g6,  100. 
Puddling  box,  205. 
Pumpelly,  R.,  cited,  18,  19,  table  Hi. 
Punjab,  India,  18. 
Puno,  Department  of,  Peru,  28. 
Punta  de  los  Reyes,  Cal.,  44. 
Purus  River,  Peru,  28. 
Pyrenees  Mountains,  16. 

Quaker   Hill,    Placer    Co.,    Cal.,    75, 

table  li. 
Quartz  veins.  Gold,  in  California,  48, 

6i,  65. 
Quebec,     Province    of,     Canada,     37, 

table  lii. 
Queen  Charlotte  Sound,  New  Zealand, 

37- 
Queensland,  Australia,  30,  34. 
Queenstown,  New  Zealand,  36. 
Quicksilver,  Amount  used  in  charging 

sluices,  244,  266. 
Quicksilver,  Loss  of,  244,  266,  267. 
"  ores  in  California,  58. 

Treatment  of,  249. 

Railroad  Flat,  Calaveras  Co. ,  Cal.,  270. 
Rainfall,  62,  91,  93,  105,  tables  v.,vi., 

240. 
Raleigh,  Sir  Walter,  29. 
Randall,  P.  M.,  cited,  273. 


Randolph,  E.,  cited,  44. 

Rankine,   W.    J.    M.,    cited,    97,    98, 

table  xxii. 
Ras-Elba,  Egypt,  16. 
Rathget,  J.,  on  the  yield  of   the  gravel 

deposits    in    Calaveras    Co.,     Cal., 

table  li. 
Ratio  of  evaporation  to  rainfall,  92. 
Rawhide  hose,  49. 
Raymond,  R.  W.,  cited,  40,  142,  tables 

xiii.,  li. 
Recent  alluvial  deposits  in  California, 

54- 

Records  of  gold-washing,  15-43. 

Red  Bluff,  Tehama  Co.,  Cal.,  53. 

Red  gravel,  87. 

Red  Sea,  16. 

Reid,  cited,  32. 

Reid's  Creek,  Victoria,  Australia,  73. 

Reservoir-,  90-118. 

Retorting  amalgam,  249. 

Riberao  River,  Brazil,  25. 

Riffles,  224-227,  234,  257,  259,  271. 27S. 

Rifle  for  discharge  pipe,  50,  182. 

Rio  das  Mortes,  Brazil,  25. 

Rio  Grande,  U.  S.  of  America,  40. 

River  channels.  Ancient — see  also  Pli- 
ocene gravels. 

River-mining,  48,  51,  79,  Su. 

Rivets  for  hydraulic  pipe,  162,  169— 171. 

Riviere  du  Loup,  Canada,  table  lii. 

Rock  riffles,  224,  259,  271. 

Rocker,  203. 

Rose's  Bar  Tunnel,  Timbuctoo,  Vuba 
Co.,  Cal ,  232. 

Round  Lake  Dam  and  Reservoir,  Ne- 
vada Co.,  Cal.,  95,  104. 

Rowan  County,  North  Carolina,  39. 

Rowdy  Flat,  Victoria,  Australia,  73. 

Rudyard — see  English  (dam  and  reser- 
voir). 

Rushworth  Mines,  Victoria,  Australia, 
32. 

Russia,  15,  20,  table  lii. 

Rust  of  iron  pipes,  167. 

Rutherford  County,  North  Carolina,  39. 


3o6 


INDEX. 


Sacramento  Ditch,  270. 

Sacramento  River  and  Valley,  Cal., 
45,  62,  113,  238,  239,  240. 

Sahara,  Desert  of,  17. 

Sailor's  Union,  Placer  Co.,  Cal.,  table  li. 

Salinas  River,  Cal.,  56. 

Salmon  River,  Idaho,  39. 

Salt  Spring  Valley  Reservation  Ditch, 
270. 

San  Andreas  Reservoir  and  Dam,  San 
Mateo  Co.,  Cnl.,  99,  104. 

San  Antonio  Mission,  Monterey  Co,, 
Cal.,  61. 

San  Antonio,  Mount,  Brazil,  71, 

San  Antonio,  Rio  de,  U.  S.  of  Colom- 
bia, 29. 

San  Bartolomo,  Rio  de,  U.  S.  of  Co- 
lombia, 29. 

San  Benito  River,  Cal.,  56. 

San  Bernardino  Mountains,  San  Ber- 
nardino Co.,  Ca!.,  64,  65. 

San  Diego  County,  Cal.,  44,  45,  65, 
68. 

San  Francisco,  San  Francisco  Co.,  Cal , 

55,  56. 
San    Francisco   Canon,    Los    Angeles 

Co.,  Cal.,  ei. 
San  Francisquito  Placers,  Los  Angeles 

Co.,  Cal.,  45. 
San  Gabriel,   Los  Angeles  Co.,   Cal., 

55,  59,  61. 
San  Gavan,  Peru,  27. 
San  Isidro  (see  also  San  Diego),  45. 
San  Jago,  Falls  of,  U.  S.  of  Colombia, 

29. 
San  Joao,  Brazil,  71. 
San  Joaquin  Valley  and    River,  Cal., 

62,  238,  269. 
San  Jose,  Brazil,  71. 
San  Juan,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal.,  138,  140, 

tables  xiii.,  xv.,  234. 
San  Juan  del  Oro,  Peru,  28. 
San  Luis  Rey,  San  Diego  Co.,  Cal.,  55. 
San  Mateo  County,  Cal.,  99. 
San  Pablo  Bay,  Cal.,  238. 
Sand-box,  177. 


Sandhurst  District,  Victoria,  Australia, 

32. 
Sandia,  Province  of,  Peru,  28. 
Sands,  72. 
Sangre    de    Cri.sto    Mountains,     New 

Mexico,  41. 
Santa  Ana    Mountains,    Los   Angeles 

Co  ,  Cal.,  55,  60,  61. 
Santa   Barbara   County,  Cal.,   59,  61, 

68,  168. 
Santa  Clira  County,  Cal.,  174. 
Santa  Clara  River,  Cal.,  60. 
Santa  Cruz  de  Cana,  U.  S.  of  Colom- 
bia, 29 
Santa  Cruz  Mountains,  Cal.,  56,  59,  60. 
Santa  Cruz  River.  Venezuela,  28. 
Santa  Fe,  New  Mexico,  40. 
Santa  Lucia  Range,  Cal.,  56,  59,  61. 
Santa  Monica  Range,  Cal ,  57. 
Santiago,  Rio  de,  U.   S.  of  Colombia, 

29. 
Savaglikon,    Valley    of,    Siberia,    23, 

table  lii. 
Saw  Mill  Flat  Dam,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal., 

104. 
Schmidtmeyer,  cited,  26,  29. 
Scotchman's  Tunnel  Claim,  New  South 

Wales,  33. 
Scott's    Valley    placers.    Trinity    Co., 

Cal.,  47. 
Sebastopol,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal.,  table  1. 
Secchi,  S.J.,  Father,  cited,  158. 
Secret    Diggings,     Plumas   Co.,    Cal., 

table  li. 
Sedimentary  volcanic  layers,  66. 
Selwin,  M.  A.,  cited,  70. 
Semipalitinsk,  Siberia,  table  lii. 
Senegal  River,  Senegambia,  Africa,  17. 
Serio  River,  Italy,  16. 
Serpentine  rocks  in  California,  57,  58. 
Serra,  Father  Junipero,  cited,  44. 
Sevilla,  Rio  de,  U.  S.  of  Colombia,  29. 
Shaargans  Valley,  Siberia,  table  lii. 
Shaft  timbering,  216. 
Shafts,  Prospect,  87,  88,  89. 
Shafts  for  tunnels,  215. 


INDEX. 


307 


Shallow  placers,  78. 
Shantung,  Province  of,  China,  19. 
Shasta  County,  Cal.,  55,  62, 66,  table  li. 
Shasta,  Mount,  California,  63,  66. 
Shelvocke,  Captain  Royal  Navy,  "Voy- 
age around  the  World  by  Way  of  the 

South  Sea,"  45. 
Shensi,  Province  of,  China,  19. 
Shiribeshi,   Province   of,   Japan,    table 

lii. 
Shot  Gun   Lake   Reservoir  and  Dam, 

Nevada  Co.,  Cal.,  95,  104. 
Shotover  River,  New  Zealand,  36. 
Shrinkage  of  embankments,  100. 
Siberia,  15,  table  lii. 
Sicard  Claim,  Stanislaus  Co.,  Cal.,  72, 

tables  xlvi.,  1. 
Sierra  County,  Cal.,  63,  S3,  84,  table  li. 
Sierra  Nevada,  Belt  of  the,  53,  54,  63, 

64. 
Silliman,  Professor,  cited,  40. 
Silurian  deposits  at  Beechworth,  32. 
Silurian  deposits  of  Canada,  37. 
Silver  mines  in  California,  61. 
Sipage  thrcugh  dams,  94,  115. 
Siphons,  49,  158. 
Sites  for  storage  reservoirs,  90. 
Skidmore,  W.  S.,  cited,  76. 
Slate  formations  in  California,  58,  59, 

64,  67. 
Slope,  Average    of  the  Sierra  Nevada, 

63,  64. 
Slopes  of  banks,  102,  138. 
Sluice,  affects  the  duty  of  the  inch,  268. 
Sluice,  Definition  of,  218. 
Sluice  diggings,  78. 
Sluices,  Action  of  water  in,  272. 
Sluices,  Charging  the,  244,  266. ' 
Sluices,  Construction  and  location  of, 

215,  235.  259- 
Sluices,  Distribution  of  gold  in,   252- 

261. 
Sluices,  Grades  of,  218,  227-231,  259, 

266,  274,  277-279,  tables  xlii.-xlvi. 
Sluices,  Ground,  247. 
Sluicing,  Ground,  79,  81. 


Smartsville,  Yuba  Co.,  Cal.,  114.  124 

140,  table  XV.,  206,  226,  232,  246, 

tables  1  ,  li. 
Smith,  H.,  Jr.,  cited,  95,  112,  125,  126, 

174,  1S8,  273,  tables  1.,  li. 
Smythe,  R.  Brough,  cited,  17,  70,  253, 
Snake  River,  Idaho,  39,  40. 
Snow  Mountain    Ditch,   Nevada  Co., 

Cal.,  table  xiii. 
Snowfall,  91,  93,  105,  tables  v.,  vi. 
Soetbeer,    Dr.,   cited,    17,   26,   27,28, 

30. 
Sofala,  17. 

Solfataric  action  in  California,  54,  61. 
Sources  of  water  supply,  90. 
South  Australia,  30-34. 
South  Carolina,  State  of,  39. 
South  Island,  New  Zealand,  35. 
.South  Yuba  Canal  Company,  Nevada 

Co.,  Cal..  95,  loi,  104,  124,  138,  140, 

ta  jles  xiii.,  li. 
Southern  Cross  Mine,  Placer  Co.,  Cal., 

179,  239,  271. 
Southern  District,  New  South  Wales, 

32,  table  lii. 
Spain,  Gold-washing  in,  16,  82. 
Spanish  Claim,  El  Dorado  Co.,  Cal., 

table  li. 
Spearfish  River,  Dakota  Ter.,  146. 
Spike's  Gully,  South  Australia,  34. 
Spring  Valley  and   Cherokee    Mining 

Company,  Butte  Co.,  Cal.,  49,   103, 

138,  141,  table  xiii.,   162,   table  xv., 

174.  175- 
Spring   Valley  Water    Company,    San 

Francisco,  104,  160,   table  xv.,    162, 

170,  171. 
St.  Helena,  Mount,  Cal.,  61. 
St.  Lucas.  Cape,  Lower  California,  44, 
Stanislaus  County,   Cal.,   68,    72,   74, 

124,    125,  132,  138,   table  xiii.,  168, 

177,    226,   229,   241,    263,  265,  270, 

274,  276,  tables  xliii.,  xliv.,  1.,  li. 
Stapleton  River,  South  Australia,  35. 
State  Engineer  of  California,  cited,  77, 

238,  239,  240,  268,  271,  276. 


3o8 


INDEX. 


Stearns,    E.    P.,    on    measurement   of 

water,  iig,  120. 
Sterling  Reservoir,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal., 

95,  104. 

Stickeen  River,  British  Columbia.  38. 

Stockton  Ridge,  270. 

Storage  of  tailings,  112,  I15. 

Storage  reservoirs,  90. 

Stove-pipe.  49. 

Strabo,  cited.  15,  16. 

Strain,  Tensile — see  Tensile, 

Strains  on  pipes — see  Pressure. 

Strassburg  on  the  Rhine,  16. 

Strelok  Bay,  Siberia,  25. 

Striedinger,  J.  H.,  cited,  213. 

Stutchburg  on  the  distribution  of  gold- 
en gravel,  70. 

Suakin,  Egypt,  16. 

Sucker  Flat,  Yuba  Co.,  Cal..  207,  232, 
table  li. 

Suisun  Bay,  Cal.,  61,  238. 

Sulphur  in  California,  61. 

Sunny  South  Mine,  Placer  Co.,  Cal., 
84,  85. 

Supply  of  water,  Sources  of,  90. 

Supply  pipe,  158,  178. 

Surface-mining,  78,  79. 

Surtur  River,  India,  17. 

Surveying    a     ditch    line,     136,     152, 

153- 
Suspension  of  material  in  water,  240, 

271. 
Sutter  Creek,  Amador  Co.,  Cal.,  270. 
Sutter's  Fort,  Cal.,  46. 
Sweetland,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal.,  180,  211, 

213,   226,   234,   256,  258,  260,  264, 

table  I. 
Sweetland  Creek  Tunnel,  Nevada  Co., 

Cal ,  234. 
Sze-Chuen,  Province  of,  China,  19. 

Table  i.   Production  of  gold  in  Russia, 

21. 
Table  2.   Reservoirs  in  California,  95. 
Table  3.   Angles  of  repose  and  friction 

of  embankment  materials,  102. 


Table  4.  Principal  dams  in  California, 
104. 

Table  5.  Rainfall  at  North  Bloomfield 
and  Bowman  Dam,  follows  p.  118. 

Table  6.  Rainfall  and  snowfall  at  Bow- 
man Reservoir,  follows  p.  118. 

Table  7.  Discharge  of  water  through 
triangular  notches,  122. 

Table  8.  Coefficients  of  discharge  of 
water  through  rectangular  orifices, 
123. 

Tables  9,  10,  11.  Lumber  for  flumes, 
Dimensions  of,  149,  150. 

Table  12.  Details  of  cost  of  Milton 
Ditch  and  Flume,  154,  155. 

Table  13.  Dimensions,  capacity  in 
inches,  grade,  and  costs  of  ditches 
in  California,  follows  p.  156. 

Table  14.  Thickness  and  weight  of 
iron  for  pipes,  159. 

Table  15.  Thickness  of  iron,  maximum 
tensile  strain  on  wrought-iron  pipes, 
follows  p.  160. 

Table  16.  Area  and  weight  of  wrought- 
iron  pipes,    161. 

Table  17.   Sizes  of  rivets,  162. 

Table  18.  Details  of  riveting  a  22-inch 
wrought-iron  pipe,  162. 

Table  19.  Costs  of  constructing  iron 
pipes,  169. 

Table  20.  Details  of  construction  of 
the  Spring  Valley  Water  Company's 
wrought-iron  pipe,  171. 

Table  21.  Showing  thickness  of  iron, 
pressure,  and  maximum  tensile  strain 
on  the  Spring  Valley  and  Cherokee 
Mining  Company's  pipe,  174. 

Table  22.  Flow  of  water  through  cir- 
cular pipes.  Coefficients  of,  follows 

p.  174- 

Table  23.  Experiments  with  Hurdy- 
Gurdy  wheels  at  the  North  Bloom- 
field  Mine.  189. 

Table  24.  Bank-blasting  at  the  Manza- 
nita  Mine,  Sweetland,  Nevada  Co., 
Cal.,  212. 


INDEX. 


309 


Table  25.  Lengths  and  grades  of  tun- 
nels in  Smartsville  District,  Yuba 
Co.,  Cal.,  232. 

Table  26.  Lengths,  grades,  and  costs 
of  tunnels  in  Nevada  Co.,  Cal.,  234. 

Table  27.  Cost  of  the  French  Corral 
tunnel  and  sluices,  233. 

Table  28.  Cost  of  the  ManzanitaMine 
tunnel  and  sluices,  234. 

Table  29.  Hall's  estimate  of  hydraulic 
debris  in  California  rivers,  239. 

Table  30.  Mendell's  estimate  of  hy- 
draulic debris  in    California  rivers, 

239- 

Table  31.  French  Corral  Mine  Under- 
currents, 257. 

Table  31  A.  Yield  of  gold  from  the  un- 
dercurrents, etc.,  at  French  Corral, 
Nevada  Co.,  Cal.,  25S. 

Table  32.  Yield  from  the  undercur- 
rents, etc.,  at  Manzanita  Mine,  Ne- 
vada Co.,  Cal.,  258. 

Table  33.  Distribution  of  gold  in  the 
sluices  of  the  Manzanita  Mine,  260. 

Table  34.  Distribution  of  gold  in  the 
sluices  of  the  French  Corral  Mine, 
261. 

Table  35.  Distribution  of  gold  in  the 
sluices  of  the  North  Bloomfield 
Mine,  262. 

Table  36.  Amount  of  water  used,  yield 
of  bullion,  and  loss  of  quicksilver  at 
the  North  Bloomfield  Mine,  264. 

Table  37.  Details  of  a  run  at  the  New 
Kelly  and  Delaney  Claims,  showing 
amount  of  water  used,  bullion  yield, 
and  loss  of  quicksilver,  266. 

Table  38.  Estimates  of  the  amount  of 
water  used  and  the  duty  of  the  inch, 
269. 

Table  39.  Estimates  of  the  amount  of 
water  used  and  the  duty  of  the  inch 
by  Lieutenant  Payson,  270. 

Table  40.  Estimates  of  the  amount  of 
water  used  and  the  duty  of  the  inch 
by  the  State  Engineer,  271. 


Table  41.  The  amounts  of  water  used 
and  the  duty  of  the  miner's  inch  at 
North  Bloomfield  and  La  Grange 
mines,  274. 

Table  42.  Amount  of  water  used, 
quantity  of  gravel  washed,  grade, 
height  of  banks,  details  of  cost,  and 
bullion  yield  at  the  French  Hill 
Claim,  Stanislaus  Co.,  Cal.,  follows 
p.  279. 

Table  43.  Amount  of  water  used, 
gravel  washed,  grade,  height  of 
banks,  yield  of  bullion,  and  co.->ts  of 
working  the  Light  Claim,  Patricks- 
ville,  Stanislaus  Co.,  Cal.,  follows  p. 
279. 

Table  44.  Details  of  working  the  Cbes- 
nau  Claim,  Patricksville,  Stanislaus 
Co  ,  Cal.,  follows  p.  279. 

Table  45.  Details  of  working  the  John- 
son Claim,  Stanislaus  Co.,  Cal.,  fol- 
lows p.  279. 

Table  46.  Details  of  working  the  Si- 
card  Claim,  Patricksville,  Stanislaus 
Co.,  Cal.,  follows  p.  279. 

Table  47.  Resume  of  the  work  done  by 
the  La  Grange  Company  from  June 
I,  1874,  to  September  30,  1S76,  277. 

Table  48.  Amount  of  water  used, 
gravel  washed,  height  of  banks, 
yield  of  bullion,  and  cost  of  work- 
ing No.  8  Claim,  North  Bloomfield, 
Nevad.i  Co.,  Cal.,  278. 

Table  49.  Classification  of  mines  and 
mining  expenses  in  California,  279. 

Table  50.  Amount  of  gravel  moved 
and  yield  of  important  hydraulic 
claims  in  California,  follows  p.  279. 

Table  51.  Amount  of  gravel  moved 
and  vield  of  various  placer  claims  in 
California,  follows  p.  279. 

Table  52.  Amount  of  gravel  washed 
and  corresponding  yield  of  foreign 
gold-fields,  follows  p.  279. 

Table  Mountain,  Tuolumne  Co.,  Cal., 
51,  66. 


,IO 


INDEX. 


Table    Mountain    Creek,     Cal.,     239, 

269. 
Table-Top     Mountain,     New     South 

Wales,  33. 
Tagus  River,  Portugal,  16. 
Tahoe,  Lake,  Cal.,  64. 
Tail  sluices — see  Sluices. 
Tailings,  II2-115,  236-240. 
Tailings    deposited   in    streams,    114, 

236,  238-240. 
Tailings,  Storage  of,  112,  115. 
Talca,  Chili,  27. 
Tallawang  District,  New  South  Wales, 

33.  67. 
Tambaroora      District,      New      South 

Wales,  32. 
Tamping  powder  drifts,  213. 
Tapu  District,  New  Zealand,  36. 
Tarring   iron   pipes,     table    xv.,    167, 

168. 
Taylor  Wheel,  The,  191,  193. 
Tejon,  Fort,   Kern  Co.,  Cal.,   53,   55, 

59,  61,  62,  63. 
Temescal  Range,  55,  60. 
Temora   placers.  New    South   Wales, 

32. 
Temperance    Hill,    Yuba    Co.,    Cal., 

table  li. 
Temple,  E. ,  on  distribution  of  gold,  70. 
Tensile  strain  on  pipes,  table  xv.,  172, 

174. 
Tentek  River,  Western  Turkistan,  22. 
Tertiary    alluvial     deposits     in     New 

South  Wales,  34. 
Tertiary  strata  of  California,    54,    57, 

58,  59,  60,  64,  66. 
Tesorero,  Venezuela,  29. 
Texas  Creek  ditch  and  flume,  131. 
Texas  Creek  pipe,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal., 

160,  table  XV. 
Teya  River,  Siberia,  22. 
Thames  Gold  Fields,  The,  New  Zea- 
land, 36. 
Thibet,  18. 
Thickness  of  iron  for  pipes,  159,  table 

XV.,  161,  162,   16S.  169,  171,  172. 


Thompson,  Prof..  Experiments  on  the 

discharge  of  water  through  triangular 

notches,  120. 
Tiltil,  Chili,  27. 

Timber-crib  dams,  96,  106,  no. 
Timbering  shafts,  216. 
Timbuctoo,  Yuba  Co.,  Cal.,  49,  232. 
Tinkers  Diggings,  New  Zealand,  36. 
Tin  oxide,  88. 
Tin  ore  in  California,  60. 
Tipuani  River,  Bolivia,  27. 
Tom,  The,  47,  204. 
Tools  for  pipe-making,  169. 
Topography  of  California,  53,   69. 
Torrens  River,  South  Australia,  34. 
Toshibitsu,  Province  of,  Japan,   table 

lii. 
Transactions  of  the  American  Institute 

of   Mining  Engineers,  20,   70,   table 

lii. 
Trans-Baikalia,  Siberia,   20,   24,   table 

lii. 
Transporting    capacity    of    a    current, 

271. 
Transporting  power  of  a  current,  271. 
Transvaal,  South  Africa,  17. 
Trautwine,   John   C,   cited,    99, 

loi, 
Travancore,  State  of,  India,  18. 
Treaty  of  Guadalupe-Hidalgo,  47. 
Tres  Pinos,  San  Benito  Co.,  Cal., 
Triangular  notch.    Discharge  through, 

120,  122. 
Triassic   strata  in    California,    54,   58, 

64. 
Trinity  County  placers,  Discovery  of, 

47 
Trinity  River,  Cal.,  49,  66,  238. 
Tuapeka,  New  Zealand,  36. 
Tujimo  River,  Siberia,   24. 
Tulare  County,  Cal.,  65. 
Tulare  Lake,  Cal  ,  58. 
Tunnels  and  sluices,  215— 235. 
Tunnels,  Deep,  first  in  California,    ». 
Tunnels  for  drift-mines,  83. 
Tunnels,  Prospect,  83. 


100, 


60. 


INDEX. 


3" 


Tuolumne  County,   Cal.,    51,   64,  66, 

223. 
Tuolumne  River,  Cal.,  64,  68,   72,  77, 

238,  241,  270. 
Tuolumne  Water  Company,  103,    104, 

table  xiii. 
Turkistan,  20,  22. 
Turn-in  sluice,  227,  228,  229. 
Turn-out  sluice,  227,  229-231. 
Turon  District   New  South  Wales,  32. 
Twist's  Fall,  Victoria,  Australia,  73. 

Uderey,    Valley   of   the,    Siberia,   23, 

table  lii. 
Umpqua  River,  Oregon,  79. 
Undercurrents,    231,    232,     247,    257, 

259,  261. 
Undercurrents,  Distribution  of  gold  in, 

252-261. 
Undulations,  Rich  pay  in,  72- 
Union   Ditch,    Yuba   Co.,    Cal.,    138, 

140,  table  xiii. 
Union    Ditch,.    Calaveras    Co.,     Cal., 

270. 
Union  Gravel  Mine,  Yuba  Co.,   Cal., 

table  li. 
United  States  of  America,  38. 
Untuguna  River,  Siberia,  24. 
Ural  Gold  Fields,  20,  21,  88,  table  lii. 
Uralla  District,  New  South  Wales,  32, 
table  lii. 

Vaca,  Cabeza  de,  Expedition   to  Gulf 

of  California,  42 
Valparaiso,  Chili,  27. 
Valves  for  iron  pipes,  166,  167. 
Vancouver  Island,    British   Columbia, 

38. 
Veins,  Gold  quartz,    in  California,  48, 

61,  65. 

Venegas,   Father,    Discovery   of  Cali- 
fornia, 42,  61. 

Venezuela,  28. 

Ventura  County,  Cal.,  59,  61. 

Verkneudinsk,  Siberia,  20,  24. 

Vermont,  Slate  of,  39. 


Victoria,   Australia,   30,    70,    71,    205, 

253,  table  lii. 
Victoria,  British  Columbia,  38. 
Vigno  Hill,  Stanislaus  Co.,  Cal.,   274. 
Virginia   City   and   Gold    Hill   Water 

Company,  Nevada,    160,    table  xv., 

163,  172,  173. 
Virginia,  State  of,  39. 
Visalia,  Tulare  Co.,  Cal.,  53. 
Viscayno,  Sebastian,  43. 
Vitim  River,  Siberia,  24. 
Volcanic  activity  in  California,  54,  61. 
Volcanic  cones  in  California,  66. 
Volcanic  layers,  Sedimentar}-,  65,  66. 
Volcano  Mine,  270. 

Wairau  Valley,  New  Zealand,  37. 
Wakamarina  District,  New  Zealand,  37 
Waldron  Reservoir,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal., 

94. 
Wallace,  11.  W.,  on  yield  of  gravel  at 

Bald  Mt.,  Sierra  Co.,  Cal.,  table  li. 
Walls,  Puddle,  96,  100. 
Walsh,  Travels  in  Brazil,  25,  71. 
Waranga  Gold  Fields,  Victoria,  Aus. 

tralia,  32. 
Washing,  First,  27. 
Washing,  Method  of,  244-251. 
Washington  Territor)',  39. 
Washoe  Valley,  Nevada,  172. 
Waste-gates- ditches,    133,    134,    136, 

276. 
Waste-gates — flumes,  128,  145,  154. 
Water,   Absorption   of,   92,    132,   135, 

143. 
"        Coetticients       of       discharge 

through  circular  pipes,  table 

xxii. 
Coefficients       of       discharge 

through  ditches,  131-133. 
"        Coefficients       of       discharge 

through  rectangular  orifices, 

123. 
"        Discharge  over  weirs,  119,  120. 
"        Discharge     through     nozzles, 

1S5. 


312 


INDEX. 


Water,     Discharge     through     orifices, 

119. 
"        Discharge  through  pipes,  table 

XV.,  174. 
"        Discharge    through    triangular 

notches,  120,  122. 
*'        Duty  of  the  miner's  inch,  268, 

274,    277,  278,  tables  xlii.- 

xlvi. 
"        Erosion  of   material  in,   236, 

272. 
"        Evaporation  of,   92,  135,    143. 
"        Flow  in  ditches,  130-134. 
"        Flow    in    narrow    and     deep 

ditches,  137. 
"        Flow  in  open  channels,  127. 
"        Loss  of,   table  vi.,    132,    133, 

134.  143- 
"        Loss  in  distribution,  133. 
*'        Pressure  on  pipes,  table  xv., 

174,  tables  xlii.-xlvi. 
"        Measurement  of,  119-134. 
"        Supply,  Sources  of,  gi. 
■"        Suspension     of     material    in, 

240. 
■"        Transporting  capacity  of,  271. 
"        Transporting  power  of,  271. 
"        Wheel — see  Hurdy-Gurdy. 
Wear  of  stones  in  running  water,  236, 

272. 
Weaver   Lake    Reservoir    and    Dam, 

Nevada  Co.,  Cal.,  93,  95,  104. 
Wei  River,  China,   19. 
Weight    of   wrought-iron    plate,    159. 
Weight  of  wrought  iron  in  pipes,  161. 
Weirs,  119,  120. 
"Weisbach,  Julius,  cited,  119. 
Werchneudinsk,  Siberia,  table  Hi. 
Werong,   Mount,   New   South  Wales, 

33- 
Westland  District,  New  Zealand,  35, 

36. 
Wheel — see  Hurdy-Gurdy. 
White  River,  Cal.,  66. 
Whitesides    Claim,    El    Dorado    Co., 

Cal.,  table  li. 


Whitney,  J    D.,  cited,  53,  70,  276. 

Whitney,  Mount,  Cal.,  64. 

Wilkes'  Exploring  Expedition,  45. 

Wilkinson,  C.  S.,  on  auriferous  coal 
measures,  67. 

Wing  dams,  48. 

\\'ood,  Fossil,  in  California,  67 

Wooden  dams  (see  also  Timber  cribs), 
96. 

Woodward  Claim,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal., 
263. 

Woolsey  Flat,  Nevada  Co.,  Cal.,  234. 

Woolshed,  Victoria,  Australia,  73. 

Wright,  P.,  Distribution  of  gold  in 
tail  sluices,  253. 

Wrought-iron  pipes  — see  Pipes  and 
nozzles. 

Wynaad  Gold  Fields,  India,  17. 

Wyoming  and  Dakota  Water  Com- 
pany, Dakota,  146,  147. 

Yackandanah,  Victoria,  Australia,  73. 
Yenisei  River,  Siberia,  22. 
Yeniseisk,    Northern   Siberia,    20,   22, 

table  lii. 
Yeniseisk,   Southern    Siberia,    20,    23, 

table  lii. 
Yenashimo  Valley,    Siberia,    23,   table 

lii. 
Yes-o,  Japan,  20. 
Yield — see  Product  of  gold. 
Yield  from  the  auriferous  deposits  of 

California,  42,  275,  277,  278,  tables 

xlii.-xlvi.,  1.,  li.,  28S. 
Yield    of    auriferous    gravel — see    Re- 
cords of  gold-washing. 

"     of  the  different  gravel  strata,  72, 

74,  75- 
"     of  the   different  gravel  strata  at 
"         North  F>loomfield,  73,  74. 
"     of  the  different  gravel  strata  at 

Patricksville,  74. 
"     of    drifting    and    hydraulicking 

at  North  Bloomfield,  84,  278. 
"     of  the  Russian,  Australian,  and 

Japan  gold  fields,  20,  table  lii. 


INDEX. 


313 


Yield  of  gravel  at  La  Grange,  74,  277, 
tables  xlii.— xlvi. 

"     of  minimum  pay  of  gravel,  76. 

"     of  top  dirt  at  La  Grange,  74. 

"  of  top  dirt  at  the  Polar  Star 
Mine,  75. 

"  of  undercurrents — see  Distribu- 
tion of  gold  in  undercurrents. 

*'  of  sluices — see  Distribution  of 
gold  in  sluices. 


138.    140, 
232,  273. 


Yuba   Co.,    Cal.,    95,    124, 

table  xiii.,  206,  207,  226, 

tables  1.,  li. 
Yuba  River,  Cal.,  77,  93,  (;5,  103,  114, 

115,  235,  239,  245.  268. 

Zapaterito  River,  U.  .S.  of  Colombia,  29. 
Zehya  River,  Siberia.  25. 
Zipangu,  Japan,  19. 
Zlataust,  Russia,  22. 


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